Abstract
Medical data is transferred between hospitals and healthcare providers via telemedicine to improve patient care. This transfer exposes medical data to a number of security risks, and while most existing security solutions, such as cryptographic approaches, protect data from unauthorized access, this protection is only effective when the data is encrypted. In this context, we present a frequency-domain watermarking method for hiding electronic patient records in their associated electrocardiogram (ECG) signals in this paper. The signal is transformed into a 2D picture in this approach, and the frequency content of the image is extracted using the integer wavelet transform. Finally, the acquired coefficients are treated through Schur decomposition, and the watermark bits are integrated by altering the least significant bit of the generated Eigen values. We used the ECG data from the MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database to test the suggested method. Based on the results of the experiments, we can infer that using the Integer wavelet transform allows for the generation of a watermarked signal that is practically identical to the host signal. The watermark's resistance to several attacks commonly used in watermarking is further confirmed by the robustness results.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Data Availability Statements
The data used to support the findings of this study could be found freely here: https://archive.physionet.org/physiobank/database/mitdb/.
Abbreviations
- BER:
-
Bit error rate
- CPU:
-
Central processing unit
- Db:
-
Decibel
- DCT:
-
Discrete cosine transform
- DWT:
-
Discrete wavelet transform
- ECG:
-
Electrocardiogram
- GB:
-
Gigabyte
- GHZ:
-
Gigahertz
- HH:
-
High-high
- HL:
-
High-low
- IWT:
-
Integer wavelet transform
- LH:
-
Low–high
- LL:
-
Low-low
- MSB:
-
Most significant bit
- NCC:
-
Normalized cross correlation
- PRD:
-
Percentage residual difference
- PSNR:
-
Peak signal to noise ratio
- QR:
-
Quick response
- RAM:
-
Random access memory
- RLE:
-
Run length encoding
- RONI:
-
Region of non interest
- SSIM:
-
Structural similarity index measurement
- SVD:
-
Singular value decomposition
References
Ahmad FS, Ali L, Raza-Ul-Mustafa A, Khattak HA, Hameed T, Wajahat I, Kadry S, Bukhari SAC (2021) A hybrid machine learning framework to predict mortality in paralytic ileus patients using electronic health records (EHRs). J Ambient Intell Hum Comput 12(3):3283–3293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-020-02456-3
Ahmadi SBB, Zhang G, Wei S (2020) Robust and hybrid SVD-based image watermarking schemes. Multimedia Tools Appl 79(1):1075–1117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-019-08197-6
Ahmadi SBB, Zhang G, Rabbani M, Boukela L, Jelodar H (2021) An intelligent and blind dual color image watermarking for authentication and copyright protection. Appl Intell 51(3):1701–1732. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10489-020-01903-0
Alarifi A, Sankar S, Altameem T, Jithin KC, Amoon M, El-Shafai W (2020) A novel hybrid cryptosystem for secure streaming of high efficiency H.265 compressed videos in IoT multimedia applications. IEEE Access 8:128548–128573. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3008644
Ali L, Wajahat I, AmiriGolilarz N, Keshtkar F, Bukhari SAC (2021) LDA–GA–SVM: improved hepatocellular carcinoma prediction through dimensionality reduction and genetically optimized support vector machine. Neural Comput Appl 33(7):2783–2792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-020-05157-2
Alotaibi RA, Elrefaei LA (2019) Text-image watermarking based on integer wavelet transform (IWT) and discrete cosine transform (DCT). Appl Comput Inf 15(2):191–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aci.2018.06.003
Amine K, Fares K, Redouane KM, Salah E (2022) Medical image watermarking for telemedicine application security. J Circ Syst Comput 31(05):2250097. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218126622500979s
Baba Ahmadi SB, Zhang G, Jelodar H (2019) A robust hybrid SVD-based image watermarking scheme for color images. In: 2019 IEEE 10th annual information technology, electronics and mobile communication conference (IEMCON), pp 0682–0688. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMCON.2019.8936229
Bagheri Baba Ahmadi S, Zhang G, Wei S, Boukela L (2021) An intelligent and blind image watermarking scheme based on hybrid SVD transforms using human visual system characteristics. Vis Comput 37(2):385–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00371-020-01808-6
Bhalerao S, Ansari IA, Kumar A, Jain DK (2019) A reversible and multipurpose ECG data hiding technique for telemedicine applications. Pattern Recogn Lett 125:463–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patrec.2019.06.004
Fares K, Amine K, Salah E (2020) A robust blind color image watermarking based on Fourier transform domain. Optik 208:164562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2020.164562
Fares K, Khaldi A, Redouane K, Salah E (2021) DCT & DWT based watermarking scheme for medical information security. Biomed Signal Process Control 66:102403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2020.102403
Goyal LM, Mittal M, Kaushik R, Verma A, Kaur I, Roy S, Kim T (2020) Improved ECG watermarking technique using curvelet transform. Sensors 20(10):2941. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20102941
JafariBarani M, Ayubi P, YousefiValandar M, YosefnezhadIrani B (2020) A blind video watermarking algorithm robust to lossy video compression attacks based on generalized Newton complex map and contourlet transform. Multimedia Tools Appl 79(3):2127–2159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-019-08225-5
Jithin KC, Sankar S (2020) Colour image encryption algorithm combining Arnold map, DNA sequence operation, and a Mandelbrot set. J Inf Secur Appl 50:102428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jisa.2019.102428
Kadry S, Nam Y, Rauf HT, Rajinikanth V, Lawal IA (2021) Automated Detection Of Brain Abnormality Using Deep-Learning-Scheme : a study. In: 2021 seventh international conference on bio signals, images, and instrumentation (ICBSII), pp 1‑5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICBSII51839.2021.9445122
Kahlessenane F, Khaldi A, Kafi MR, Euschi S (2021a) A color value differentiation scheme for blind digital image watermarking. Multimedia Tools Appl 80(13):19827–19844. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-021-10713-6
Kahlessenane F, Khaldi A, Kafi MR, Zermi N, Euschi S (2021b) A value parity combination based scheme for retinal images watermarking. Opt Quant Electron 53(3):161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-021-02793-3
Kahlessenane F, Khaldi A, Kafi R, Euschi S (2021c) A DWT based watermarking approach for medical image protection. J Ambient Intell Hum Comput 12(2):2931–2938. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-020-02450-9
Kahlessenane F, Khaldi A, Kafi R, Euschi S (2021d) A robust blind medical image watermarking approach for telemedicine applications. Clust Comput 24(3):2069–2082. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-020-03215-x
Khan MA, Ashraf I, Alhaisoni M, Damaševičius R, Scherer R, Rehman A, Bukhari SAC (2020) Multimodal brain tumor classification using deep learning and robust feature selection: a machine learning application for radiologists. Diagn (Basel, Switz) 10(8):E565. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics10080565
Luo Y, Li L, Liu J, Tang S, Cao L, Zhang S, Qiu S, Cao Y (2021) A multi-scale image watermarking based on integer wavelet transform and singular value decomposition. Expert Syst Appl 168:114272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2020.114272
Mark RG, Schluter PS, Moody GB, Devlin PH, Chernoff D (1982) An annotated ECG database for evaluating arrhythmia detectors. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 29:8
Meng L, Liu L, Tian G, Wang X (2021) An adaptive reversible watermarking in IWT domain. Multimedia Tools Appl 80(1):711–735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-020-09686-9
Meraj T, Rauf HT, Zahoor S, Hassan A, Lali MI, Ali L, Bukhari SAC, Shoaib U (2021) Lung nodules detection using semantic segmentation and classification with optimal features. Neural Comput Appl 33(17):10737–10750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-020-04870-2
Moad MS, Kafi MR, Khaldi A (2022) A non-subsampled Shearlet transform based approach for heartbeat sound watermarking. Biomed Signal Process Control 71:103114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2021.103114
Natgunanathan I, Karmakar C, Rajasegarar S, Zong T, Habib A (2020) Robust patient information embedding and retrieval mechanism for ECG signals. IEEE Access 8:181233–181245. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3025533
Nazari M, Mehrabian M (2021) A novel chaotic IWT-LSB blind watermarking approach with flexible capacity for secure transmission of authenticated medical images. Multimedia Tools Appl 80(7):10615–10655. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-020-10032-2
Rajinikanth V, Kadry S, Damaševičius R, Taniar D, Rauf HT (2021) Machine-learning-scheme to detect choroidal-neovascularization in retinal OCT image. In: 2021 seventh international conference on bio signals, images, and instrumentation (ICBSII), pp 1‑5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICBSII51839.2021.9445134
Sahu AK, Swain G (2019) An optimal information hiding approach based on pixel value differencing and modulus function. Wirel Pers Commun 108(1):159–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11277-019-06393-z
Sahu AK, Swain G (2022) High fidelity based reversible data hiding using modified LSB matching and pixel difference. J King Saud Univ Comput Inf Sci 34(4):1395–1409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2019.07.004
Sahu AK, Swain G, Babu ES (2018) Digital image steganography using bit flipping. Cybern Inf Technol 18(1):69–80. https://doi.org/10.2478/cait-2018-0006
Sahu M, Padhy N, Gantayat SS, Sahu AK (2021) Shadow image based reversible data hiding using addition and subtraction logic on the LSB planes. Sens Imaging 22(1):7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11220-020-00328-w
Salah E, Amine K, Redouane KM, Fares K (2021a) Spatial and frequency approaches for audio file protection. J Circ Syst Comput 30(12):2150210. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218126621502108
Salah E, Amine K, Redouane K, Fares K (2021b) A Fourier transform based audio watermarking algorithm. Appl Acoust 172:107652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2020.107652
Sneha PS, Sankar S, Kumar AS (2020) A chaotic colour image encryption scheme combining Walsh-Hadamard transform and Arnold-Tent maps. J Ambient Intell Hum Comput 11(3):1289–1308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-019-01385-0
Tsafack N, Sankar S, Abd-El-Atty B, Kengne JCK, Belazi A, Mehmood I, Bashir AK, Song O-Y, El-Latif AAA (2020) A new chaotic map with dynamic analysis and encryption application in internet of health things. IEEE Access 8:137731–137744. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3010794
Valandar MY, Barani MJ, Ayubi P (2019) A fast color image encryption technique based on three dimensional chaotic map. Optik 193:162921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2019.06.021
YousefiValandar M, JafariBarani M, Ayubi P (2020) A blind and robust color images watermarking method based on block transform and secured by modified 3-dimensional Hénon map. Soft Comput 24(2):771–794. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00500-019-04524-z
Zermi N, Khaldi A, Kafi MR, Kahlessenane F, Euschi S (2021a) Robust SVD-based schemes for medical image watermarking. Microprocess Microsyst 84:104134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpro.2021.104134
Zermi N, Khaldi A, Kafi MR, Kahlessenane F, Euschi S (2021b) A lossless DWT-SVD domain watermarking for medical information security. Multimedia Tools Appl 80(16):24823–24841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-021-10712-7
Zermi N, Khaldi A, Kafi R, Kahlessenane F, Euschi S (2021c) A DWT-SVD based robust digital watermarking for medical image security. Forensic Sci Int 320:110691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110691
Zermi N, Khaldi A, Kafi MR, Kahlessenane F, Euschi S (2022) An SVD values ordering scheme for medical image watermarking. Cybern Syst 53(3):282–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/01969722.2021.1983700
Zhang H, Hu L (2019) A data hiding scheme based on multidirectional line encoding and integer wavelet transform. Signal Process Image Commun 78:331–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.image.2019.07.019
Zhang L, Wei D (2020a) Image watermarking based on matrix decomposition and gyrator transform in invariant integer wavelet domain. Signal Process 169:107421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sigpro.2019.107421
Zhang L, Wei D (2020b) Robust and reliable image copyright protection scheme using downsampling and block transform in integer wavelet domain. Digital Signal Process 106:102805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsp.2020.102805
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by " La Direction Générale de la Recherche Scientifique et du Développement Technologique (DGRSDT)" of Algeria.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Khaldi, A., Kafi, M.R. & Meghni, B. Electrocardiogram signal security by digital watermarking. J Ambient Intell Human Comput 14, 13901–13913 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-022-04101-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-022-04101-7