Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a young scientific field, which like other domains of information processing sciences, was born in the middle of the XXth century, with the arrival of the first computers. However, much more long-standing concerns have contributed to its final emergence. They can be broadly articulated around two main issues: the formalization of reasoning and learning mechanisms and the design of machines having autonomous capabilities in terms of computation and action. Over time, such machines have been first dreamed, before being designed and made real. The progressive achievements have fed the imagination of philosophers, but also writers, movie makers, and other artists. This is the reason why in the few elements of the great historical epic that we sketch here, references to all sectors of human creativity are involved.
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Notes
- 1.
The application for getting a financial support, written in the summer of 1955, and entitled “A proposal for the Dartmouth summer research project on artificial intelligence” (where the name of the new research area was already coined!), was signed by John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester and Claude Shannon (McCarthy et al. 2006).
- 2.
Apart from the 4 signees of the project appearing in the above footnote, they were Trenchard More, Allen Newell, Arthur Samuel, Oliver Selfridge, Herbert A. Simon, and Ray Solomonoff. Interestingly enough, it is worth noticing that these 10 participants were already carriers of the large variety of research directions that can still be observed in AI.
- 3.
A year between parentheses is at the same time a publication date and indicates a reference to a publication of the author cited just before in the text. Exceptionally for the works from Antiquity to Middle Ages, the year used in the references is one of a modern edition and not the one of the first publication.
- 4.
Arguments for and against the existence of God, and their discussions have a very long history from Anselm to Kurt Gödel (1995) (his proof is stated in second-order modal logic); see the monograph by Sobel (2004) for a complete exposition of these arguments. Thomas Aquinas (1975, 2006) himself disputes Anselm’s ontological argument (see (Sousa Silvestre 2015) for a modern logical discussion) and proposed five other proofs (Aquinas 1975, 2006); see also Mavrodes (1963), Wade (1967) on logical accounts of God omnipotence paradoxes.
- 5.
Paul the Persian is an East Syrian theologian and philosopher who worked at the court of the Sassanid king Khosrow I (501–579), and wrote several treatises and commentaries on Aristotle (Teixidor 2003), which had some influence on medieval Islamic philosophy.
- 6.
A version of this section and of the next two sections has already appeared in Marquis et al. (2014).
- 7.
Some other authors would be also worth mentioning, such as the Flemish philosopher Arnold Geulincx (1624–1669), author of treatises of logic entitled Logica fundamentis suis restituta (1662) and Methodus inveniendi argumenta (1663).
- 8.
The text continues with “Now to compute, is either to collect the sum of many things that are added together, or to know what remains when one thing is taken out of another. Ratiocination, therefore, is the same with addition and subtraction;” (or in Latin: “Computare vero est plurium rerum simul additarum summam colligere, vel una re ab alia detracta cognoscere residuum. Ratiocinari igitur idem est quod addere and subtrahere”). One page after one reads: “We must not therefore think that computation, that is, ratiocination, has place only in numbers, as if man were distinguished from other living creatures (which is said to have been the opinion of Pythagoras) by nothing but the faculty of numbering; for magnitude, body, motion, time, degrees of quality, action, conception, proportion, speech and names (in which all the kinds of philosophy consist) are capable of addition and subtraction.” (or in Latin: “Non ergo putandum est computationi, id est, ratiocinationi in numeris tantum locum esse, tanquam homo a caeteris animantibus (quod censuisse narratur Pythagoras) sola numerandi facultate distinctus esset, nam and magnitudo magnitudini, corpus corpori, motus motui, tempus tempori, gradus gradui, actio actioni, conceptus conceptui, proportio proportioni, oratio orationi, nomen, nomini (in quibus omne Philosophiae genus continetur) adjici adimique potest.”). In fact, the anecdote reported does not concern Pythagore, but Platon, see Hobbes of Malmesbury (1655) note p. 13. Moreover, as early as 1651 (Hobbes of Malmesbury 1651) in chapter V (Of Reason and Science) of Of Man, the first part of his Leviathan, Hobbes had given a preliminary version whose beginning was “When a man ‘reasoneth’ he does nothing else but conceive a sum total, from ‘addition’ of parcels, or conceive a remainder, from ‘subtraction’ of one sum from another; which, if it be done by words, is conceiving of the consequence of the names of all the parts, to the name of the whole; or from the names of the whole and one part, to the name of the other part.”
- 9.
“I worked especially hard to show that if any such machines had the organs and outward shape of a monkey or of some other animal that doesn’t have reason, we couldn’t tell that they didn’t possess entirely the same nature as these animals; whereas if any such machines bore a resemblance to our bodies and imitated as many of our actions as was practically possible, we would still have two very sure signs that they were nevertheless not real men. The first is that they could never use words or other constructed signs, as we do to declare our thoughts to others. We can easily conceive of a machine so constructed that it utters words, and even utters words that correspond to bodily actions that will cause a change in its organs (touch it in one spot and it asks “What do you mean?”, touch it in another and it cries out “That hurts!”, and so on); but not that such a machine should produce different sequences of words so as to give an appropriately meaningful answer to whatever is said in its presence - which is something that the dullest of men can do. Secondly, even though such machines might do some things as well as we do them, or perhaps even better, they would be bound to fail in others; and that would show us that they weren’t acting through understanding but only from the disposition of their organs. For whereas reason is a universal instrument that can be used in all kinds of situations, these organs need some particular disposition for each particular action; hence it is practically impossible for a machine to have enough different organs to make it act in all the contingencies of life in the way our reason makes us act.” (Transl. J. Bennett).
- 10.
In French: “comment l’esprit humain se forme des idées, les compare pour en porter des jugements et enchaîner ces jugements pour déduire les uns des autres”.
- 11.
Although researchers nowadays speak of ‘Euler diagrams’, similar diagrams have already been used by many authors before (Lemanski 2017). Among others, the diagrams of Juan Luis Vives (1493–1540) (who used a ‘V’-like nested representation for the three items in the syllogism in Barbara “Any B is a C, but any A is a B, therefore any A is a C ”, in a treatise entitled De Censura Veri, part of his encyclopedic compendium De Disciplinis Libri), as well as those of Nicolaus Reimarus Ursus (Nicolaus Reimers) (1551–1600) in his Metamorphosis Logicae (Strasbourg,1589), of Erhard Weigel (1625–1699) in his Philosophia Mathematica, Theologia Naturalis Solida (1693), of Johann Christoph Sturm (1635–1703) in the Universalia Euclidea (1661), or still those of Leibniz, and Johann Christian Lange (1669–1756) can be mentioned as precursors of the logic diagrams used by Euler.
- 12.
This result was already anticipated in the line diagrams (using pairs of segments) by Abū al-Barakāt; see Hodges (2018).
- 13.
Stuart Mill is perhaps better known as an economist, and a strong advocate of utilitarism (Stuart Mill 1863), following Jérémy Bentham (1748–1832), i.e. a consequentialist approach to decision making.
- 14.
Carnap (1930) also underlines that from the tautological nature of deduction in modern logic “results the impossibility of any metaphysics which could pretend to conclude from experience to transcendent”.
- 15.
Incidentally, it is notable that the first issue of one of the very first journals in computer science (Collective 1952), a journal dedicated to both computational machinery and theoretical logic, included in its table of contents a paper on a tri-valued logic by Bolesław Sobociński (1906–1980), which has turned out to be the logic of conditional objects (see chapter “Representations of Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence: Probability and Possibility” in this volume).
- 16.
In the previous period, some economists such as Léon Walras (1834–1910) and Carl Menger (1840–1921) (Karl Menger’s father), as well as the logician William Stanley Jevons, introduce the notion of marginal utility in value theory for reflecting the interest a particular agent takes in a good or service, while Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), who advocated an ordinal view of utility, characterized situations where one cannot increase an agent’s well-being without decreasing another agent’s one, giving rise to the notion of optimum which bears his name; besides, he makes a distinction between logic actions like the ones studied in economy and non-logical actions studied in sociology (Pareto 1961).
- 17.
His father was also a distinguished economist, fond of logic (Keynes 1900).
- 18.
This theory was rediscovered independently by Lotfi Zadeh (1921–2017) in his approach to the representation of linguistic information, and for its qualitative counterpart, by the philosopher David Lewis (1941–2001) in his work on counterfactuals (1973).
- 19.
The neurons as basic units of the nervous system were discovered by the neuro-anatomist S. Ramon y Cajal (1852–1934) in the late1880’s.
- 20.
The reader could consult the website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_fiction.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
Paul Braffort has also been the author of the first French monograph on AI (1968). We are very glad that he kindly accepted to write the foreword of the Volume 3 of this treatise.
- 24.
For more details, the reader may, for example, consult the website http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/AIMOVIES/AImovai.htm.
- 25.
With the help of Claude Shannon and Nathaniel Rochester (1919–2001). The latter was the designer of the IBM701 computer and the author of the first program in assembly language, and had interests close to AI (Rochester et al. 1956). The request for support, already titled “A proposal for the Dartmouth summer research project on Artificial Intelligence” dates back from the previous summer and was jointly signed by McCarthy, Minsky, Rochester and Shannon (McCarthy et al. 2006). The six other participants were Trenchard More, Allen Newell, Arthur Samuel, Oliver Selfridge, Herbert A. Simon, and Ray Solomonoff (1926–2009). This last researcher, who was a pioneer of the concept of algorithmic probability, circulated a report (1956) the same year, which was the beginning of his future theory of universal inductive inference and one of the first approaches to probability-based machine learning in artificial intelligence (this latter phrase is used in his report of August 1956!). As to Trenchard More, he was preparing a thesis on the concept of natural deduction which he later defended (1962).
- 26.
Pattern recognition is born in the same time as AI (Dinneen 1955; Selfridge 1955; Clark and Farley 1955). Moreover Selfridge’s work has in turn influenced the work of the cyberneticians Jerome Lettvin (1920–2011), Humberto Maturana (born in 1928), Warren McCulloch, and Walter Pitts (Lettvin et al. 1959).
- 27.
- 28.
Alain Colmerauer (1941–2017), the father of the PROLOG programming language, was also the inventor of the founding principles of constraint logic programming. We are very glad that he kindly accepted to write the foreword of the Volume 2 of this treatise.
- 29.
Samuel’s program initiated the use of tree-pruning procedures of alpha-beta type, and already had skills to learn its cost function.
- 30.
- 31.
- 32.
In one of the answers to this report, that of Christopher Longuet-Higgins (1923–2004), one can find for the first time, the expression “cognitive science (s)” (Hünefeldt and Brunetti 2004). Longuet-Higgins was a co-founder with Richard Gregory (1923–2010) and Donald Michie (1923–2007) of the Department of Machine Intelligence and Perception of the University of Edinburgh in 1967.
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The authors are especially indebted to Jens Lemanski who provided them with valuable references and comments, in particular on Johann Christian Lange and the history of Euler-type diagrams.
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Marquis, P., Papini, O., Prade, H. (2020). Elements for a History of Artificial Intelligence. In: Marquis, P., Papini, O., Prade, H. (eds) A Guided Tour of Artificial Intelligence Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06164-7_1
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