Keywords

1 Introduction

Mobile device usage has become ubiquitous and influences people’s lives in various domains by changing the way people communicate and interact with each another (Yan et al. 2019; Brown and Palvia 2015). Although there has been growing scholarly interests in researching the impacts of mobile device usage, inconsistent findings have been reached with both positive and negative effects stirred by mobile device usage on individual performance (Hu et al. 2017; Karr-Wisniewski and Lu 2010). On one hand, evidence has shown that mobile devices such as smartphones enhance interpersonal relationships and role performance (Lee et al. 2017). On the other hand, mobile device usage may bring disturbance, addiction and break down work-life balance as a noisy channel (Brown and Palvia 2015; Kauffman et al. 2017).

Although literature has indicated the significant effects of mobile device usage on individual development, there is scarcity of evidence testing empirically its functionalities in cross-cultural environment. This becomes an urgent issue since globalization increases the mobility of expatriates who show more reliance on mobile devices when they travel to foreign countries wherein they suffer a lot from cultural shock and conflicts (Hu et al. 2018, 2020). Although few studies have identified that application of information technology influences individual development in cross-cultural environment (Hu et al. 2017, 2018), there is a great necessity to further identity the relationships between mobile device usage and personal development, such as, creativity, the key competence in the 21st century for individual and business success (Miron-Spektor and Beenen 2015). Moreover, how cultural boundaries impact mobile device usage in cross-cultural settings deserve scholarly attention as well.

The current research aims to answer the important yet unclear question. More specifically, we endeavor to clarify how two dimensions of mobile device usage impact two dimensions of intention to share knowledge respectively, thereby enhancing individual creativity. Further, we explore how cultural distance as a boundary condition in cross-cultural environment acts as a noisy channel to disturb the positive effects exerted by mobile device usage.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. A literature review is conducted in Sect. 2. Thereafter, research model and hypotheses are developed, which is followed by research methodology and results. Following that, a discussion section interprets research results and suggests implications and limitations.

2 Research Model and Theoretical Development

Based on the extant literature review about mobile device usage, intention to share knowledge, individual creativity and cultural distance, we propose the research model outlining the relationships between those variables. And the research model is depicted in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.
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Research model

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2.1 Mobile Devices Usage and Intention to Share Knowledge

Mobile device usage helps expatriates to integrate into the new community with better understandings and change cultural identification to conform to the majority group (Safdar and Berno 2016). Thereafter getting acquainted with the new environment, expatriates are more likely to share explicit knowledge including their work reports, manuals, methodologies, and research theories with their colleagues and leaders (Bock et al. 2005). Further, mobile device usage for information purpose also encourages expatriates to interact and establish good interpersonal relationships with others from different cultural backgrounds. And this finally enhances individual’s intention to share implicit knowledge. Based on the above statement, we hypothesize that:

Mobile device usage for information purpose is positively related to intention to share explicit knowledge: H1a, and intention to share implicit knowledge: H1b.

Likewise, expatriates tend to rely on mobile device usage for direct socializing purpose. Interaction and communication through mobile device usage offers conveniences for expatriates to establish interpersonal relationship and integrate into the mainstream culture (Hu et al. 2020; Chung et al. 2014). In this way, they are more likely to share explicit and implicit knowledge. Thus we hypothesize that:

H2a: Mobile device usage for socializing purpose is positively related to intention to share explicit knowledge, and positively related to intention to share implicit knowledge: H2b.

2.2 Intention to Share Knowledge and Individual Creativity

During the process of knowledge sharing, positive psychological changes happen to expatriates including trust, self-efficacy, self-confidence (Hu et al. 2017, 2018; Ogunmokun et al. 2020). And those factors have been identified as antecedents for individual creativity (Perry-Smith and Mannucci 2017; Al-Kurdi et al. 2020). Relevant evidences have identified the positive association between expatriate’s knowledge sharing and individual creativity (Gong et al. 2013; Ali et al. 2019; Sigala and Chalkiti 2015; Liao and Chen 2018). Based on the above statement, we hypothesize that:

Expatriate’s intention to share explicit knowledge (H3a) and intention to share implicit knowledge (H3b) are positively related to individual creativity.

2.3 The Moderating Roles of Cultural Distance

As a dominant stressor disturbing expatriate’s psychological comfort, cultural distance comprehensively represents culturally-rooted patterns how individuals from different cultural backgrounds think, feel and act (Hofstede 1997). The more distant one culture is from another one, the more negative effects and less psychological comfort would happen to expatriates (Redmond 2000). In other words, perceived cultural distance may hamper expatriate’s mobile device usage to enhance their intention to share knowledge because of unpredicted uncertainties existing in culturally-distant host culture. Based on the above statement, we hypothesize:

Cultural distance negatively moderates the relationship between informational mobile device usage and intention to share explicit knowledge (H4a), and intention to share implicit knowledge (H4b);

Cultural distance negatively moderates the relationship between socializing mobile device usage and intention to share explicit knowledge (H4c), and intention to share implicit knowledge (H4d).

3 Research Methodology

A survey methodology was employed. The survey was conducted at two Chinese public universities with samples of international students who show reliance on mobile device usage during their learning process. 400 questionnaires were delivered to the international students. 381 questionnaires were finally collected back with a returning rate of 95.3%. After deleting the incomplete ones, a total of 340 questionnaires were used for the current research analysis.

A six-item scale was adapted from Hughes et al. (2012) to measure mobile device usage. Intention to share knowledge was measured with a 5-item scale developed by Bock et al. (2005). Among the five items, two were used to measure the intention to share explicit knowledge and 3 were used to measure the intention to share implicit knowledge. Individual creativity was measured with a 4-item scale, which was adapted from Farmer et al. (2003). A 6-item scale was adapted from Chen et al. (2010) to measure the cultural distance.

4 Results

4.1 Assessment of Variables

Table 1 indicated good discriminant validity of all constructs.

Table 1. Measurement of constructs
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4.2 Hypothesis Testing

Regression analysis was conducted to examine the hypotheses. Figure 2 Structural model results indicated that all hypotheses were supported with data statistics.

Fig. 2.
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Structural model results

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Further, results indicated that cultural distance negatively moderates the relationships between two dimensions of mobile device usage and two dimensions of intention to share knowledge respectively (Fig. 3, 4, 5 and 6).

Fig. 3.
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Moderating effect of cultural distance on the relationship between informational mobile device usage and intention to share explicit knowledge

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Fig. 4.
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Moderating effect of cultural distance on the relationship between socializing mobile device usage and intention to share explicit knowledge

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Fig. 5.
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Moderating effect of cultural distance on the relationship between socializing mobile device usage and intention to share implicit knowledge

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Fig. 6.
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Moderating effect of cultural distance on the relationship between informational mobile device usage and intention to share implicit knowledge

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5 Discussion

The purpose of the current research is to empirically investigate the relationships between mobile device usage, intention to share knowledge, individual creativity and cultural distance. The research findings are interesting and important, and make the following contributions.

First, the current research makes significant contributions to the literature of mobile device research by uncovering its usage on individual development (creativity). Moreover, the empirical research was conducted in cross-cultural settings, which fills in the previous research gaps. With the rapid growth of mobile technology significantly diffusing over the whole world (Shiyadeh et al. 2013; Al-Adwan et al. 2018), more research is expected to further explore how mobile device influences individual development. The research findings suggest that mobile device usage, either for information purpose or socializing purpose, is positively associated with individual creativity in cross-cultural environment. Previous research ever indicated that mobile device usage is associated with cultural intelligence and self-efficacy (Hu et al. 2018) and moderates the relationship between multicultural experiences and individual creativity (Hu et al. 2017). However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no previous research examining the direct relationship between mobile device usage and individual creativity. And this research has addressed the gap by unveiling the underlying mechanism through which mobile device usage exerts effects on individual creativity.

Second, the current research also contributes to the creativity research. As the key competence in the 21st century (Miron-Spektor and Beenen 2015), creativity has attracted a lot of scholarly attention. Scholars endeavor to explore the antecedents impacting creativity development from various perspectives (Dong et al. 2017; Perry-Smith and Mannucci 2017). Meanwhile, there is still paucity of literature researching the correlations between personal attributes, contextual conditions and creativity in cross-cultural settings (Hu et al. 2017). The current research takes the perspective of combining the information technology and creativity, which is seldom addressed by prior research. The research findings suggest that mobile device usage, either for information or socializing purpose, acts as a positive role impacting individual creativity through the conduit of intention to share knowledge in cross-cultural settings. Moreover, results indicate that intention to share explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge is a reliable resource to enhance individual creativity. And this seems to be particularly significant for international expatriates for survival and success in cross-cultural environment (Vezzali et al. 2016).

Finally, the current research also contributes to cross-cultural studies by identifying that cultural distance still makes a noisy channel to mitigate the positive effects of two dimensions of mobile device usage on individual intention to share explicit and implicit knowledge, thereby enhancing creativity. In this regard, the combination of information technology and psychology research contributes significantly to cross-cultural studies. And the research findings about the boundary effects of cultural distance keep consistent with previous research (Sougand and Yamin 2010; Chen et al. 2010).

The current research also makes significant implications for expatriates and business management. First of all, management and expatriates should acknowledge the enabling roles of mobile device, particularly in cross-cultural settings. To be more specific, management and expatriates should be fully aware of the positive functionalities of mobile device usage. This research indicates that informational mobile device usage and socializing mobile device usage are reliable resources for enhancing individual’s intention to share explicit and implicit knowledge. Further, mobile device usage is positively associated with individual creativity through the conduit of intention to share knowledge. In this vein, subordinates’ or expatriates’ mobile device usage in cross-cultural settings should be encouraged at working places. On one hand, mobile device usage facilitates expatriates to spread information and attain useful information from local peers and experts, which contributes to their creativity by stipulating their intention to share knowledge. Furthermore, studies have also confirmed that exchanging information purpose of using mobile device contributes to expatriate’s cultural capability and self-efficacy (Hu et al. 2018, 2020). In this vein, management should encourage their subordinates assigned for international expatriation to exchange information a lot with overseas company’s peers and leaders. This social behavior not only brings much smoother flow of information resources for the company’s business operation, but also contributes more to expatriate’s acquaintance of local business culture and successful adaptation to a foreign environment. On the other hand, mobile device usage offers more opportunities for expatriates to socialize with locals and make friends. Studies have identified that associations with locals contribute to expatriate’s cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adjustment (Hu et al. 2020). Similarly, the current research indicates that socializing purpose of mobile device usage is positively related to creativity by enhancing expatriate’s intention to share knowledge. In this vein, expatriate’s mobile device usage to interact and communicate with local peers and experts should be encouraged. When expatriates use mobile device for socializing purposes, they are exchanging ideas with locals and integrating into the mainstream culture, which is conducive to their cross-cultural adjustment. During the process of interaction and communication, they are also learning new cultural and professional knowledge to restructure their thinking styles and mindset for new ideas, which finally benefits their creativity. Thus ubiquitous socializing networking systems including Apps in the host country could be installed in expatriate’s mobile devices. For example, if expatriates have been sent to China, the widely-used socializing software called Wechat should be installed in expatriate’s mobile phones or PCs because more than 1 billion active users use Wechat every month and text 45 billion messages every day for living and working purposes according to the statistics released by the company.

Second, management should fully acknowledge the significance of employee’s creativity in international business operations. Increasing global competition requires management to take measures to develop their subordinates’ creativity. In the current research, two factors were confirmed to contribute to enhancing creativity. Just as mentioned, mobile device usage for information and socializing purposes is conducive to individual’s creativity. Relevant measures including allowing expatriate’s to install and use Apps in the working places should be advocated for exchanging work-related or cultural-related information. Further, the research also confirms that intention to share explicit and implicit knowledge is an antecedent for developing creativity. In this regard, any measures encouraging expatriate’s intention to share their knowledge with other people from different cultural backgrounds should be taken. From the perspective of two categories of knowledge, this could be realized in two ways. One way is to organize activities to encourage behaviors sharing reports, official documents, manuals, methodologies and models. Those activities are organized to increase employee’s intention to share explicit knowledge. The other way is to take measures to increase employee’s sense of belonging and harmonious leader-member and teammates relationships. Feel-at-home company climate stipulates employee’s intention to exchange implicit knowledge including their experiences, know-how, know-where, know-whom, and expertise. And this is also the conduit to transfer the positive effects of mobile device usage on individual creativity.

Last but not the least, management should be highly cautious about the potential negative effects of cultural distance. The current research has identified that cultural distance is detrimental to exert negative effects on expatriate’s psychological comfort and final performance. Previous research also confirmed that cultural distance seriously impacts interpersonal relationships and intercultural communication (Redmond 2000; Galchenko and van de Vijver 2007). In this vein, management should be fully aware of the cultural differences of another country’s cultural knowledge, including cultural traditions, customs, and taboos. For example, in Japan, business culture does not allow their staff to express their ideas freely and publicly, which is widely advocated in western countries on the contrary. In China, Chinese culture is highly distant from western countries in many aspects, wherein Chinese culture is rooted in collectivism, whilst western countries advocate individualism. Thus western expatriates may find it hard to comprehend the prevalence of Guanxi in China business operations (Chen and Peng 2008). Failure to deal with cultural distance may lead to fatigue of communication and exchange of ideas during the process of socializing with the locals through mobile device usage. And this may finally separate expatriates from the mainstream culture and result in final psychological problems and business failure (Sit et al. 2017). Training programs designed for expatriates to familiarize the main cultural differences between home and host countries become a critical part before expatriate’s international expatriation. During their expatriation, activities facilitating better interaction and mitigating the negative effects stirred by cultural distance should be considered as partial work of human resources management. For example, company’s yearly get-together party may be a good choice for subordinates from different cultural backgrounds to exchange their ideas and demonstrate the charm of their cultural differences.

6 Limitations and Future Research Directions

The current research is subject to some limitations. First, the research adopted a self-reported questionnaire to measure related variables in the model. The research method contains possible common forms of bias although it has been found not to be a big issue here. Second, the research findings are also limited by cross-sectional approach. Third, the sampling may be another limitation because more than 97% participants are from Asian and African countries. The research findings should be cautiously extended to other parts of the world.