{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4318351452","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2301.11305","title":"DetectGPT: Zero-Shot Machine-Generated Text Detection using Probability Curvature","display_name":"DetectGPT: Zero-Shot Machine-Generated Text Detection using Probability Curvature","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4318351452","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2301.11305"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.11305","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_indexed_in_scopus":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cornell University"],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false},"type":"preprint","type_crossref":"posted-content","indexed_in":["arxiv","datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.11305","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5074009646","display_name":"Eric Mitchell","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7487-1744"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mitchell, Eric","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5047036903","display_name":"Yoonho Lee","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8213-2191"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lee, Yoonho","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5020537133","display_name":"Alexander Khazatsky","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Khazatsky, Alexander","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046006076","display_name":"Christopher D. Manning","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6155-649X"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Manning, Christopher D.","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005431772","display_name":"Chelsea Finn","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6298-0874"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Finn, Chelsea","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"affiliations":[]}],"institution_assertions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":103,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.999953,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9948,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9948,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.9761,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12262","display_name":"Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection","score":0.9672,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/discriminative-model","display_name":"Discriminative model","score":0.77478313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/zero","display_name":"Zero (linguistics)","score":0.62281805}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97931131","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5282087","display_name":"Discriminative model","level":2,"score":0.77478313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780813799","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3274237","display_name":"Zero (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.62281805},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.62105215},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5975861},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195065555","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214881","display_name":"Curvature","level":2,"score":0.5936792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778344882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q278938","display_name":"Shot (pellet)","level":2,"score":0.53611934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95623464","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1096149","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","level":2,"score":0.5240464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14036430","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3736076","display_name":"Function (biology)","level":2,"score":0.41916308},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.39535874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.37431282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.36721113},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3327435},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.28548437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.09304649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.07962817},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178790620","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11351","display_name":"Organic chemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78458016","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q840400","display_name":"Evolutionary biology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.11305","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_indexed_in_scopus":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cornell University"],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false},{"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2301.11305","pdf_url":"http://arxiv.org/pdf/2301.11305","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_indexed_in_scopus":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cornell University"],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false},{"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://api.datacite.org/dois/10.48550/arxiv.2301.11305","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4393179698","display_name":"DataCite API","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_indexed_in_scopus":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210145204","host_organization_name":"DataCite","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210145204"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["DataCite"],"type":"metadata"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null}],"best_oa_location":{"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.11305","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_indexed_in_scopus":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cornell University"],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Reduced inequalities","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10","score":0.71}],"grants":[],"datasets":[],"versions":[],"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4389116644","https://openalex.org/W4214877189","https://openalex.org/W4205463238","https://openalex.org/W3103844505","https://openalex.org/W2773965352","https://openalex.org/W259157601","https://openalex.org/W2547450044","https://openalex.org/W2153315159","https://openalex.org/W2074502265","https://openalex.org/W1487808658"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"increasing":[1],"fluency":[2],"and":[3,122,180],"widespread":[4],"usage":[5],"of":[6,14,19,29,32,58,101,120,125,153],"large":[7],"language":[8,132],"models":[9],"(LLMs)":[10],"highlight":[11],"the":[12,30,59,118,126,166],"desirability":[13],"corresponding":[15],"tools":[16],"aiding":[17],"detection":[18,152],"LLM-generated":[20],"text.":[21,110],"In":[22],"this":[23,65],"paper,":[24],"we":[25,44,67,88],"identify":[26],"a":[27,70,77,82,95,99],"property":[28],"structure":[31],"an":[33,50],"LLM's":[34],"probability":[35,62],"function":[36],"that":[37,46],"is":[38,79,139],"useful":[39],"for":[40,74,146,165,173,177],"such":[41],"detection.":[42],"Specifically,":[43],"demonstrate":[45],"text":[47],"sampled":[48],"from":[49,81,128,162],"LLM":[51],"tends":[52],"to":[53,170],"occupy":[54],"negative":[55],"curvature":[56],"regions":[57],"model's":[60],"log":[61,114],"function.":[63],"Leveraging":[64],"observation,":[66],"then":[68],"define":[69],"new":[71],"curvature-based":[72],"criterion":[73],"judging":[75],"if":[76],"passage":[78,127],"generated":[80,104,109,157],"given":[83],"LLM.":[84],"This":[85],"approach,":[86],"which":[87],"call":[89],"DetectGPT,":[90],"does":[91],"not":[92],"require":[93],"training":[94],"separate":[96],"classifier,":[97],"collecting":[98],"dataset":[100],"real":[102],"or":[103,106],"passages,":[105],"explicitly":[107],"watermarking":[108],"It":[111],"uses":[112],"only":[113],"probabilities":[115],"computed":[116],"by":[117,158],"model":[119,133,147],"interest":[121],"random":[123],"perturbations":[124],"another":[129],"generic":[130],"pre-trained":[131],"(e.g.,":[134],"T5).":[135],"We":[136],"find":[137],"DetectGPT":[138],"more":[140],"discriminative":[141],"than":[142],"existing":[143],"zero-shot":[144,168],"methods":[145],"sample":[148],"detection,":[149],"notably":[150],"improving":[151],"fake":[154],"news":[155],"articles":[156],"20B":[159],"parameter":[160],"GPT-NeoX":[161],"0.81":[163],"AUROC":[164,172],"strongest":[167],"baseline":[169],"0.95":[171],"DetectGPT.":[174],"See":[175],"https://ericmitchell.ai/detectgpt":[176],"code,":[178],"data,":[179],"other":[181],"project":[182],"information.":[183]},"abstract_inverted_index_v3":null,"cited_by_api_url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=cites:W4318351452","counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":33},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":66},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2025-04-04T09:35:14.197002","created_date":"2023-01-28"}