{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4391709747","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041144","title":"Filling the Gaps: Using Synthetic Low-Altitude Aerial Images to Increase Operational Design Domain Coverage","display_name":"Filling the Gaps: Using Synthetic Low-Altitude Aerial Images to Increase Operational Design Domain Coverage","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-02-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4391709747","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041144","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38400302"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041144","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/4/1144/pdf?version=1707469385","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_indexed_in_scopus":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true},"type":"article","type_crossref":"journal-article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/4/1144/pdf?version=1707469385","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5082349911","display_name":"Joachim R\u00fcter","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5559-5481"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2898391981","display_name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR)","ror":"https://ror.org/04bwf3e34","country_code":"DE","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1305996414","https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Joachim R\u00fcter","raw_affiliation_strings":["German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024296048","display_name":"Theresa D. Maienschein","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9668-9589"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2898391981","display_name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR)","ror":"https://ror.org/04bwf3e34","country_code":"DE","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1305996414","https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Theresa Maienschein","raw_affiliation_strings":["German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077768481","display_name":"Sebastian Schirmer","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4596-2479"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2898391981","display_name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR)","ror":"https://ror.org/04bwf3e34","country_code":"DE","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1305996414","https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sebastian Schirmer","raw_affiliation_strings":["German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032298711","display_name":"Simon Schopferer","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5254-3961"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2898391981","display_name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR)","ror":"https://ror.org/04bwf3e34","country_code":"DE","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1305996414","https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Simon Schopferer","raw_affiliation_strings":["German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5044958748","display_name":"Christoph Torens","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0651-4390"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2898391981","display_name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR)","ror":"https://ror.org/04bwf3e34","country_code":"DE","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1305996414","https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Christoph Torens","raw_affiliation_strings":["German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Flight Systems, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2898391981"]}]}],"institution_assertions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2598},"fwci":3.907,"has_fulltext":true,"fulltext_origin":"pdf","cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.999963,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":96},"biblio":{"volume":"24","issue":"4","first_page":"1144","last_page":"1144"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.9992,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.9992,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11019","display_name":"Image Enhancement Techniques","score":0.9956,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9952,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/aviation-safety","display_name":"Aviation safety","score":0.43314838},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/component","display_name":"Component (thermodynamics)","score":0.429453}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.6686958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6543468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74448152","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q765633","display_name":"Aviation","level":2,"score":0.5051554},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36503486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11235244","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","level":2,"score":0.47236973},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4622649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776151529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3045304","display_name":"Object detection","level":3,"score":0.45167464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C183469790","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q333501","display_name":"Crash","level":2,"score":0.44180024},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C46304622","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q374814","display_name":"Certification","level":2,"score":0.43932143},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C538199239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q640853","display_name":"Aviation safety","level":3,"score":0.43314838},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C168167062","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1117970","display_name":"Component (thermodynamics)","level":2,"score":0.429453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2910001868","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q458","display_name":"European union","level":2,"score":0.42767963},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.34678367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.33940566},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.21784866},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.13441446},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146978453","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3798668","display_name":"Aerospace engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151730666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205","display_name":"Paleontology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105639569","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q582577","display_name":"Economic policy","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97355855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11473","display_name":"Thermodynamics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041144","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/4/1144/pdf?version=1707469385","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_indexed_in_scopus":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true},{"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10891581","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_indexed_in_scopus":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Institutes of Health"],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true},{"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://elib.dlr.de/202802/1/sensors-24-01144.pdf","pdf_url":"https://elib.dlr.de/202802/1/sensors-24-01144.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196266","display_name":"elib (German Aerospace Center)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_indexed_in_scopus":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2898391981","host_organization_name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2898391981"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. (DLR)"],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false},{"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38400302","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_indexed_in_scopus":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Institutes of Health"],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false}],"best_oa_location":{"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041144","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/4/1144/pdf?version=1707469385","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S101949793","display_name":"Sensors","issn_l":"1424-8220","issn":["1424-8220"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_indexed_in_scopus":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"grants":[],"datasets":[],"versions":[],"referenced_works_count":22,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1861492603","https://openalex.org/W2397830550","https://openalex.org/W2431874326","https://openalex.org/W2487365028","https://openalex.org/W2615547864","https://openalex.org/W2786808285","https://openalex.org/W2809558942","https://openalex.org/W2924574544","https://openalex.org/W2954996726","https://openalex.org/W2962843773","https://openalex.org/W2963730616","https://openalex.org/W2975317124","https://openalex.org/W2992308087","https://openalex.org/W3009290327","https://openalex.org/W3099319035","https://openalex.org/W3176923149","https://openalex.org/W4205672479","https://openalex.org/W4214818500","https://openalex.org/W4226251360","https://openalex.org/W4312369265","https://openalex.org/W4382983019","https://openalex.org/W639708223"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W76517065","https://openalex.org/W577697832","https://openalex.org/W4390719751","https://openalex.org/W4320917001","https://openalex.org/W3008788504","https://openalex.org/W2758568560","https://openalex.org/W2475877807","https://openalex.org/W2358053497","https://openalex.org/W2115815699","https://openalex.org/W1583280211"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"A":[0],"key":[1],"necessity":[2],"for":[3,21,159,295],"the":[4,19,25,45,73,81,111,118,151,168,173,177,187,191,214,227,236,245,272,282,290],"safe":[5],"and":[6,58,94,130,197,230,289],"autonomous":[7],"flight":[8],"of":[9,18,27,42,154,170,179,216,232,238,248,284,292],"Unmanned":[10],"Aircraft":[11],"Systems":[12],"(UAS)":[13],"is":[14,108,126,167,265],"their":[15,69,253],"reliable":[16],"perception":[17,297],"environment,":[20],"example,":[22],"to":[23,47,52,64,68,128,141,175,204,209,259,270],"assess":[24,176],"safety":[26,178],"a":[28,122,143,206],"landing":[29,180],"site.":[30],"For":[31],"visual":[32,160],"perception,":[33],"Machine":[34],"Learning":[35],"(ML)":[36],"provides":[37],"state-of-the-art":[38],"results":[39,223,279],"in":[40,105,165,190,235,252,287],"terms":[41],"performance,":[43],"but":[44,255],"path":[46],"aviation":[48,288],"certification":[49],"has":[50],"yet":[51],"be":[53,139,260],"determined":[54],"as":[55,91],"current":[56],"regulation":[57],"standard":[59],"documents":[60,85],"are":[61,184,202],"not":[62,149,266],"applicable":[63],"ML-based":[65,124,156],"components":[66],"due":[67],"data-defined":[70],"properties.":[71],"However,":[72],"European":[74],"Union":[75],"Aviation":[76],"Safety":[77],"Agency":[78],"(EASA)":[79],"published":[80],"first":[82],"usable":[83],"guidance":[84],"that":[86,116,244,256],"take":[87],"ML-specific":[88],"challenges,":[89],"such":[90],"data":[92,137,183,201,234,269,293],"management":[93],"learning":[95],"assurance,":[96],"into":[97,226],"account.":[98],"In":[99],"this":[100,106],"paper,":[101],"an":[102,155],"important":[103],"concept":[104],"context":[107,237],"addressed,":[109],"namely":[110,194],"Operational":[112],"Design":[113],"Domain":[114],"(ODD)":[115],"defines":[117],"limitations":[119],"under":[120],"which":[121,147],"given":[123],"system":[125,157],"designed":[127],"operate":[129],"function":[131],"correctly.":[132],"We":[133],"investigated":[134],"whether":[135],"synthetic":[136,233,249],"can":[138],"used":[140,203],"complement":[142],"real-world":[144,207,268],"training":[145,215],"dataset":[146,208],"does":[148],"cover":[150,271],"whole":[152,273],"ODD":[153,211,240],"component":[158],"object":[161,219],"detection.":[162],"The":[163],"use-case":[164],"focus":[166],"detection":[169,220],"humans":[171],"on":[172],"ground":[174],"sites.":[181],"Synthetic":[182],"generated":[185],"using":[186],"methods":[188],"proposed":[189],"EASA":[192],"documents,":[193],"augmentations,":[195],"stitching":[196],"simulation":[198],"environments.":[199],"These":[200],"augment":[205],"increase":[210],"coverage":[212],"during":[213],"Faster":[217],"R-CNN":[218],"models.":[221],"Our":[222],"give":[224],"insights":[225],"generation":[228],"techniques":[229],"usefulness":[231],"increasing":[239],"coverage.":[241],"They":[242],"indicate":[243],"different":[246],"types":[247],"images":[250],"vary":[251],"suitability":[254],"augmentations":[257],"seem":[258],"particularly":[261],"promising":[262],"when":[263],"there":[264],"enough":[267],"ODD.":[274],"By":[275],"doing":[276],"so,":[277],"our":[278],"contribute":[280],"towards":[281],"adoption":[283],"ML":[285,296],"technology":[286],"reduction":[291],"requirements":[294],"systems.":[298]},"abstract_inverted_index_v3":null,"cited_by_api_url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=cites:W4391709747","counts_by_year":[{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2025-02-23T00:42:25.334035","created_date":"2024-02-10"}