{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,21]],"date-time":"2025-02-21T14:52:40Z","timestamp":1740149560721,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,3]],"date-time":"2023-01-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672704000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research Foundation (NRF) of Korea funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT","award":["2022R1A5A7000765"]},{"name":"Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation (NRF) of Korea"},{"name":"Ministry of Education","award":["NRF-2022R1A2C2010298"]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020449","name":"Korea Industrial Technology Association (KOITA)","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020449","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and ICT (MSIT)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"The early diagnosis of diabetes mellitus in normal people or maintaining stable blood sugar concentrations in diabetic patients requires frequent monitoring of the blood sugar levels. However, regular monitoring of the sugar levels is problematic owing to the pain and inconvenience associated with pricking the fingertip or using minimally invasive patches. In this study, we devise a noninvasive method to estimate the percentage of the in vivo glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) values from Monte Carlo photon propagation simulations, based on models of the wrist using 3D magnetic resonance (MR) image data. The MR image slices are first segmented for several different tissue types, and the proposed Monte Carlo photon propagation system with complex composite tissue support is then used to derive several models for the fingertip and wrist sections with different wavelengths of light sources and photodetector arrangements. The Pearson r values for the estimated percent HbA1c values are 0.94 and 0.96 for the fingertip transmission- and reflection-type measurements, respectively. This is found to be the best among the related studies. Furthermore, a single-detector multiple-source arrangement resulted in a Pearson r value of 0.97 for the wrist. The Bland\u2013Altman bias values were found to be \u22120.003 \u00b1 0.36, 0.01 \u00b1 0.25, and 0.01 \u00b1 0.21, for the two fingertip and wrist models, respectively, which conform to the standards of the current state-of-the-art invasive point-of-care devices. The implementation of these algorithms will be a suitable alternative to the invasive state-of-the-art methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s23010540","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,4]],"date-time":"2023-01-04T08:27:44Z","timestamp":1672820864000},"page":"540","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Non-Invasive In Vivo Estimation of HbA1c Using Monte Carlo Photon Propagation Simulation: Application of Tissue-Segmented 3D MRI Stacks of the Fingertip and Wrist for Wearable Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4537-2620","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shifat","family":"Hossain","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5052-3844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ki-Doo","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics Engineering, Kookmin University, Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4473","DOI":"10.1039\/c2ra22351a","article-title":"Recent advances in electrochemical glucose biosensors: A review","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2014.04.005","article-title":"Non-invasive wearable electrochemical sensors: A review","volume":"32","author":"Bandodkar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8427","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-016-9961-6","article-title":"Evaluation of a minimally invasive glucose biosensor for continuous tissue monitoring","volume":"408","author":"Sharma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. 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