{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,8]],"date-time":"2024-08-08T02:52:27Z","timestamp":1723085547488},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,10]],"date-time":"2021-07-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"Modern lidar sensors are continuing to decrease in size, weight, and cost, but the demand for fast, abundant, and high-accuracy lidar observations is only increasing. The Livox Mid-40 lidar sensor was designed for use within sense-and-avoid navigation systems for autonomous vehicles, but has also found adoption within aerial mapping systems. In order to characterize the overall quality of the point clouds from the Mid-40 sensor and enable sensor calibration, a rigorous model of the sensor\u2019s raw observations is needed. This paper presents the development of an angular observation model for the Mid-40 sensor, and its application within an extended Kalman filter that uses the sensor\u2019s data to estimate the model\u2019s operating parameters, systematic errors, and the instantaneous prism rotation angles for the Risley prism optical steering mechanism. The analysis suggests that the Mid-40\u2019s angular observations are more accurate than the specifications provided by the manufacturer. Additionally, it is shown that the prism rotation angles can be used within a planar constrained least-squares adjustment to theoretically improve the accuracy of the angular observations of the Mid-40 sensor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21144722","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]],"date-time":"2021-07-12T02:16:48Z","timestamp":1626056208000},"page":"4722","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["A Rigorous Observation Model for the Risley Prism-Based Livox Mid-40 Lidar Sensor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7394-5975","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ryan G.","family":"Brazeal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Geomatics Program, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"},{"name":"Geospatial Modeling and Applications Laboratory, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}]},{"given":"Benjamin E.","family":"Wilkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geomatics Program, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"},{"name":"Geospatial Modeling and Applications Laboratory, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7064-8238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hartwig H.","family":"Hochmair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geomatics Program, Fort Lauderdale Research & Education Center, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, C., Fu, C., Dolan, J.M., and Wang, J. (2021). L-Shape Fitting-based Vehicle Pose Estimation and Tracking Using 3D-LiDAR. IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh.","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2021.3078619"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4901","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.2966034","article-title":"Fusion of 3D LIDAR and Camera Data for Object Detection in Autonomous Vehicle Applications","volume":"20","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Maurelli, D., Droeschel, T., Wisspeintner, T., May, S., and Surmann, H. (2009, January 22\u201326). A 3D laser scanner system for autonomous vehicle navigation. Proceedings of the 2009 International Conference on Advanced Robotics, Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pricope, N.G., Halls, J.N., Mapes, K.L., Baxley, J.B., and Wu, J.J. (2020). Quantitative Comparison of UAS-Borne LiDAR Systems for High-Resolution Forested Wetland Mapping. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20164453"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Y., Cheng, Y., Zhou, T., Ravi, R., Hasheminasab, S., Flatt, J., Troy, C., and Habib, A. (2019). Evaluation of UAV LiDAR for Mapping Coastal Environments. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11242893"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ippolito, C., Krishnakumar, K., and Hening, S. (November, January 30). Preliminary results of powerline reconstruction from airborne LiDAR for safe autonomous low-altitude urban operations of small UAS. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE SENSORS, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2016.7808733"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.3390\/s140101228","article-title":"Possibilities of a Personal Laser Scanning System for Forest Mapping and Ecosystem Services","volume":"14","author":"Liang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masiero, A., Fissore, F., Guarnieri, A., Pirotti, F., Visintini, D., and Vettore, A. (2018). Performance Evaluation of Two Indoor Mapping Systems: Low-Cost UWB-Aided Photogrammetry and Backpack Laser Scanning. Appl. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/app8030416"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1109\/MSPEC.2021.9311420","article-title":"Look Out for Apple\u2019s AR Glasses: With head-up displays, camera, inertial sensors, and lidar on board, Apple\u2019s augmented-reality glasses could redefine wearable","volume":"58","author":"Perry","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Spectr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shih, N., Diao, P., Qiu, Y., and Chen, T. (2021). Situated AR Simulations of a Lantern Festival Using a Smartphone and LiDAR-Based 3D Models. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11010012"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XL-3-W4-55-2016","article-title":"Calibration and Stability Analysis of the VLP-16 Laser Scanner","volume":"40","author":"Glennie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10480","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70810480","article-title":"Automatic In Situ Calibration of a Spinning Beam LiDAR System in Static and Kinematic Modes","volume":"7","author":"Chan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1610","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2061610","article-title":"Static Calibration and Analysis of the Velodyne HDL-64E S2 for High Accuracy Mobile Scanning","volume":"2","author":"Glennie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.78.4.339","article-title":"Calibration and Kinematic Analysis of the Velodyne HDL-64E S2 Lidar Sensor","volume":"4","author":"Glennie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Marshall, G.F. (1999, January 2). Risley prism scan patterns. Proceedings of the SPIE 3787, Optical Scanning: Design and Application, Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Zhang, F., and Hong, X. (2021). Low-cost Retina-like Robotic Lidars Based on Incommensurable Scanning. IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron.","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2021.3058173"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Livox Technology Company Limited (2021, April 03). Livox Mid Series User Manual v1.2. Available online: https:\/\/www.livoxtech.com\/downloads."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"233","article-title":"Initial Investigation of a Low-cost Automotive Lidar System","volume":"42","author":"Scott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLIII-B1-2020-371-2020","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment and Calibration of Low-cost Autonomous Lidar Sensors","volume":"43","author":"Glennie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25322","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.025322","article-title":"Investigation of scan errors in the three-element Risley prism pair","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12840","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.012840","article-title":"Investigation of beam steering performances in rotation Risley-prism scanner","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5775","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.53.005775","article-title":"Pointing error analysis of Risley-prism-based beam steering system","volume":"53","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Gelb, A. (1974). Applied Optimal Estimation, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiang, C., Wang, X., Ma, Y., and Xu, B. (2015). Practical Modeling and Comprehensive System Identification of a BLDC Motor. Math. Probl. Eng., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/879581"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"501","article-title":"Nonlinear inverse solution by the look-up table method for Risley-prism-based scanner","volume":"46","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Appl."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/14\/4722\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,15]],"date-time":"2024-07-15T06:45:57Z","timestamp":1721025957000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/14\/4722"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,10]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s21144722"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21144722","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,10]]}}}