{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,4]],"date-time":"2024-09-04T04:39:24Z","timestamp":1725424764361},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,17]],"date-time":"2020-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1608163200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"Delaminations within aerospace composites are of particular concern, presenting within composite laminate structures without visible surface indications. Transmission based thermography techniques using contact temperature sensors and surface mounted heat sources are able to detect reductions in thermal conductivity and in turn impact damage and large disbonds can be detected. However delaminations between Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) plies are not immediately discoverable using the technique. The use of transient thermal conduction profiles induced from zonal heating of a CFRP laminate to ascertain inter-laminate differences has been demonstrated and the paper builds on this method further by investigating the impact of inter laminate inclusions, in the form of delaminations, to the transient thermal conduction profile of multi-ply bi-axial CFRP laminates. Results demonstrate that as the distance between centre of the heat source and delamination increase, whilst maintaining the delamination within the heated area, the resultant transient thermal conduction profile is measurably different to that of a homogeneous region at the same distance. The method utilises a supervised Support Vector Classification (SVC) algorithm to detect delaminations using temperature data from either the edge of the defect or the centre during a 140 s ramped heating period to 80 \u00b0C. An F1 score in the classification of delaminations or no delamination at an overall accuracy of over 99% in both training and with test data separate from the training process has been achieved using data points effected by transient thermal conduction due to structural dissipation at 56.25 mm.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20247227","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,17]],"date-time":"2020-12-17T15:42:47Z","timestamp":1608219767000},"page":"7227","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Composite Laminate Delamination Detection Using Transient Thermal Conduction Profiles and Machine Learning Based Data Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5067-436X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David I.","family":"Gillespie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Royal College Building, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"},{"name":"Collins Aerospace, Prestwick, 1 Dow Avenue, Prestwick International Aerospace Park, Ayrshire KA9 2SA, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8436-8325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew W.","family":"Hamilton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Manufacturing Institute Scotland, University of Strathclyde, 85 Inchinnan Drive, Renfrewshire PA4 9LJ, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6206-2229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert C.","family":"Atkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Royal College Building, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1849-5788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xavier","family":"Bellekens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Royal College Building, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5132-4572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Craig","family":"Michie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Royal College Building, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9093-5245","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Andonovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Royal College Building, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9150-6805","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christos","family":"Tachtatzis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Royal College Building, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Jin, Y.M.P. (2019). Geometrical Thermal Analysis as a Form of Finite Element Analysis Enhancement. Advances in Manufacturing Technology XXXIII, Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Manufacturing Research, Incorporating the 34th National Conference on Manufacturing Research, 10\u201312 September 2019, Queen\u2019s University."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gillespie, D.I., Hamilton, A.W., McKay, E.J., Neilson, B., Atkinson, R.C., Andonovic, I., and Tachtatzis, C. (2020). Non-destructive identification of fibre orientation in multi-ply biaxial laminates using contact temperature sensors. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20143865"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gillespie, D.I., Hamilton, A.W., Atkinson, R.C., Bellekens, X., Michie, C., Andonovic, I., and Tachtatzis, C. (2020). Defect Detection in Aerospace Sandwich Composite Panels Using Conductive Thermography and Contact Sensors. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20226689"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mills, J.A., Hamilton, A.W., Gillespie, D.I., Andonovic, I., Michie, C., Burnham, K., and Tachtatzis, C. (2020). Identifying Defects in Aerospace Composite Sandwich Panels Using High-Definition Distributed Optical Fibre Sensors. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20236746"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2691","DOI":"10.1177\/0021998317752502","article-title":"Dent depth visibility versus delamination damage for impact of composite panels by tips of varying radius","volume":"52","author":"Delaney","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2013.07.008","article-title":"Validation of low velocity impact modelling on different stacking sequences of CFRP laminates and influence of fibre failure","volume":"106","author":"Hongkarnjanakul","year":"2013","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2015.05.037","article-title":"Delamination prediction in composite laminates under low-velocity impact","volume":"132","author":"Long","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2015.02.016","article-title":"A damage evolution study of E-glass\/epoxy composite under low velocity impact","volume":"76","author":"Singh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-8368(99)00076-1","article-title":"Ultrasonic technique for the evaluation of delaminations on CFRP, GFRP, KFRP composite materials","volume":"31","author":"Scarponi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2008.04.005","article-title":"Detection of delamination defects in CFRP materials using ultrasonic signal processing","volume":"48","author":"Benammar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2020.108016","article-title":"Ultrasonic detection and characterization of delamination and rich resin in thick composites with waviness","volume":"189","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2015.08.119","article-title":"Nondestructive evaluation of carbon fibre reinforced composites with infrared thermography and ultrasonics","volume":"134","author":"Meola","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, L., and Tian, G.Y. (2012). Comparison of nondestructive testing methods on detection of delaminations in composites. J. Sens., 2012.","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/408437"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2020.103282","article-title":"Using differential spread laser infrared thermography to detect delamination and impact damage in CFRP","volume":"106","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-020-00717-x","article-title":"Detecting Delaminations in Semitransparent Glass Fiber Composite by Using Pulsed Infrared Thermography","volume":"39","author":"Moskovchenko","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nondestr. Evaluat."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2018.10.087","article-title":"Stability and failure analyses of delaminated composite plates subjected to localized heating","volume":"209","author":"Mondal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2016.04.042","article-title":"Behavior of composite laminates with embedded delaminations","volume":"150","author":"Kharghani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Civil Aviation Authority (2017). Safety and Airspace Regulation Group Mandatory Requirements for Airworthiness, Civil Aviation Authority."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"UK National Aerospace NDT Board (2015). UK NANDTB 18 NDT Method or Technique-Training and Certification Guidance, UK National Aerospace NDT Board."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"63","article-title":"Photonit neural networks and learning mathines the role of electron-trapping materials","volume":"7","author":"Farhat","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Expert Intell. Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Platt, J.C. (1998). A Fast Algorithm for Training Support Vector Machines, Microsoft. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2020.03.321","article-title":"Fuzzy Neural Network for Pattern Classification","volume":"167","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Comp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2012.09.041","article-title":"Probabilistic support vector machines for classification of noise affected data","volume":"221","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"125","article-title":"Support Vector Clustering","volume":"2","author":"Horn","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"2825","article-title":"Scikit-learn: Machine Learning in Python","volume":"12","author":"Pedregosa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boulicaut, J.F., Esposito, F., Giannotti, F., and Pedreschi, D. (2004). Applying Support Vector Machines to Imbalanced Datasets. Machine Learning: ECML 2004, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/b100702"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jabbar, H.K., and Khan, R.Z. (2014). Methods to Avoid Over-Fitting and Under-Fitting in Supervised Machine Learning (Comparative Study). Computer Science, Communication and Instrumentation Devices, Research Publishing Services.","DOI":"10.3850\/978-981-09-5247-1_017"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1145\/212094.212114","article-title":"Overfitting and undercomputing in machine learning","volume":"27","author":"Dietterich","year":"1995","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/24\/7227\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,6]],"date-time":"2024-07-06T13:14:25Z","timestamp":1720271665000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/24\/7227"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,17]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s20247227"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20247227","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,17]]}}}