{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,10]],"date-time":"2024-07-10T02:55:12Z","timestamp":1720580112790},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]],"date-time":"2018-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1542153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"This work is meant to report on activities at TU Delft on the design and implementation of a path-following system for an autonomous Toyota Prius. The design encompasses: finding the vehicle parameters for the actual vehicle to be used for control design; lateral and longitudinal controllers for steering and acceleration, respectively. The implementation covers the real-time aspects via LabVIEW from National Instruments and the real-life tests. The deployment of the system was enabled by a Spatial Dual Global Positioning System (GPS) system providing more accuracy than the regular GPS. The results discussed in this work represent the first autonomous tests on the Toyota Prius at TU Delft, and we expect the proposed system to be a benchmark against which to test more advanced solutions. The tests show that the system is able to perform in real-time while satisfying comfort and trajectory tracking requirements: in particular, the tracking error was within 16 cm, which is compatible with the 13 cm precision of the Spatial Dual GPS, whereas the longitudinal and lateral acceleration are within comfort levels as defined by available experimental studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113940","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]],"date-time":"2018-11-14T15:58:22Z","timestamp":1542211102000},"page":"3940","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Real-Life Implementation of a GPS-Based Path-Following System for an Autonomous Vehicle"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"De Winter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft Center for Systems and Control, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2624 CD Delft, The Netherlands"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9752-8925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simone","family":"Baldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft Center for Systems and Control, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2624 CD Delft, The Netherlands"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reschka, A., B\u00f6hmer, J.R., Saust, F., Lichte, B., and Maurer, M. (2012). Safe, dynamic and comfortable longitudinal control for an autonomous vehicle. IEEE Intell. Veh. Symp. Proc., 346\u2013351.","DOI":"10.1109\/IVS.2012.6232159"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2013.874563","article-title":"Combined longitudinal and lateral control for automated vehicle guidance","volume":"52","author":"Attia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1404","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2015.2504718","article-title":"Longitudinal and Lateral Control for Automated Yielding Maneuvers","volume":"17","author":"Nilsson","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2008.2011697","article-title":"A predictive controller for autonomous vehicle path tracking","volume":"10","author":"Raffo","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solea, R., and Nunes, U. (2006, January 17\u201320). Trajectory planning with velocity planner for fully-automated passenger vehicles. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2006.1706786"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2014.01.016","article-title":"Nonlinear Model Predictive Control approach in design of Adaptive Cruise Control with automated switching to cruise control","volume":"26","author":"Shakouri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Arrigoni, S., Cheli, F., Manazza, S., Gottardis, P., Happee, R., Arat, M., and Kotiadis, D. (2015, January 17\u201321). Autonomous vehicle controlled by safety path planner with collision risk estimation coupled with a non-linear MPC. Proceedings of the 24th Symposium of the International Association for Vehicle System Dynamics (IAVSD 2015), Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajamani, R. (2011). Vehicle Dynamics and Control, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-1433-9_2"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Coulter, R.C. (1992). Implementation of the Pure Pursuit Path Tracking Algorithm, DTIC Document. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Luca, A., Oriolo, G., and Samson, C. (1998). Feedback control of a nonholonomic car-like robot. Robot Motion Planning and Control, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0036073"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.20147","article-title":"Stanley: The robot that won the DARPA Grand Challenge","volume":"23","author":"Thrun","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Snider, J.M. (2009). Automatic Steering Methods for Autonomous Automobile Path Tracking, Robotics Institute. Technical Report CMU-RITR-09-08."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-its.2017.0089","article-title":"Integration of auto-steering with adaptive cruise control for improved cornering behaviour","volume":"11","author":"Idriz","year":"2017","journal-title":"IET Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.5772\/56658","article-title":"A path tracking algorithm using future prediction control with spike detection for an autonomous vehicle robot","volume":"10","author":"Zakaria","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"101","article-title":"Optimal preview car steering control","volume":"35","author":"Sharp","year":"2001","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1243\/095440605X31896","article-title":"Driver steering control and a new perspective on car handling qualities","volume":"219","author":"Sharp","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"National Instruments Corporations (2018, August 15). National Instruments. Available online: http:\/\/www.ni.com\/en-us\/shop\/labview.html."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2017.08.2228","article-title":"Real-time Performance and Safety Validation of an Integrated Vehicle Dynamic Control Strategy","volume":"50","author":"Rachman","year":"2017","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1080\/00423110701576130","article-title":"Human driving data-based design of a vehicle adaptive cruise control algorithm","volume":"46","author":"Moon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494130","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/494130","article-title":"An experimental study on lateral acceleration of cars in different environments in Sichuan, Southwest China","volume":"2015","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Discret. Dyn. Nat. Soc."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Continental (2018, August 15). Dynamic eHorizon. Available online: http:\/\/www.continental-automotive.com\/www\/automotive_de_en\/themes\/commercial_vehicles\/ch_interior_en\/ehorizon_en\/03_dynamic_ehorizon_en.html."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Awan, M. (2012). Compensation of Low Performance Steering System Using Torque Vectoring. [Ph.D. Thesis, Cranfield University]."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1076\/vesd.36.2.77.3554","article-title":"Diagnosis methods for electronic controlled vehicles","volume":"36","author":"Isermann","year":"2001","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gillespie, T.D. (1992). Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).","DOI":"10.4271\/R-114"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jagga, D., Lv, M., and Baldi, S. (2018, January 19\u201322). Hybrid Adaptive Chassis Control for Vehicle Lateral Stability in the Presence of Uncertainty. Proceedings of the 2018 26th Mediterranean Conference on Control and Automation (MED), Zadar, Croatia.","DOI":"10.1109\/MED.2018.8442921"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"190","article-title":"Tyre modelling for use in vehicle dynamics studies","volume":"870421","author":"Pacejka","year":"1987","journal-title":"SAE Trans."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dugoff, H., Segel, L., and Fancher, P. (1970, January 13\u201315). An Analysis of Tire Traction Properties and Their Influence on Vehicle Dynamic Performance. Proceedings of the 1970 International Automobile Safety Conference Compendium, Detroit, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.4271\/700377"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2008.09.006","article-title":"Design, tuning, and evaluation of a full-range adaptive cruise control system with collision avoidance","volume":"17","author":"Moon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Robert (2018, August 15). GPS Position to UTM Coordinates VI. Available online: https:\/\/forums.ni.com\/t5\/Community-Documents\/GPS-position-to-UTM-coordinates\/ta-p\/3536992."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"De Winter, A., and Baldi, S. (2018, August 15). Path Following System Test on Real-Vehicle (Max Velocity 20 km\/h). Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=V0prb1wem14&feature=youtu.be."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"De Winter, A., and Baldi, S. (2018, August 15). Path Following System Test on Real-Vehicle (Max Velocity 30 km\/h). Available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=XIRnlPQo6nw&feature=youtu.be."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3940\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]],"date-time":"2024-06-13T15:55:31Z","timestamp":1718294131000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3940"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s18113940"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18113940","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]]}}}