{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,21]],"date-time":"2025-02-21T16:15:38Z","timestamp":1740154538061,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]],"date-time":"2022-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661472000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"United States Department of Commerce\u2014National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) through The University of Southern Mississippi","award":["NA18NOS400198"]},{"name":"USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture, McIntire Stennis project","award":["FLA-FOR-005184"]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"Identifying and mitigating sources of measurement error is a critical task in geomatics research and the geospatial industry as a whole. In pursuit of such error, accuracy assessments of lidar data have revealed a range bias in low-cost scanners. This phenomenon is a temporally correlated instability in the lidar scanner where the measured distance between target and sensor changes over time while both are held stationary. This research presents an assessment of two low-cost lidar scanners, the Velodyne\u00ae HDL\u201332E and Livox\u00ae Mid\u201340, in which their temporal stability is analyzed and methods to mitigate systematic error are implemented. By immobilizing each scanner as it observes a stationary target surface over the course of multiple hours, trends in scanner precision are identified. Scanner accuracy is then determined using a terrestrial lidar scanner, the Riegl\u00ae VZ-400, to observe both subject scanner and target, and extracting the distances between scanner origin and observed surface. Patterns identified in each scanner\u2019s distance measurements indicate temporal autocorrelation, and, by exploiting the high linear correlation between scanner internal temperature and measured distance in the HDL\u201332E, it is possible to mitigate the resulting error. Application of the proposed solution lowers the Velodyne\u00ae scanner\u2019s measurement RMSE by over 60%, providing levels of measurement accuracy comparable to more expensive lidar systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14174220","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]],"date-time":"2022-08-30T05:37:55Z","timestamp":1661837875000},"page":"4220","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Accuracy Assessment of Low-Cost Lidar Scanners: An Analysis of the Velodyne HDL\u201332E and Livox Mid\u201340\u2019s Temporal Stability"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5606-7592","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carter","family":"Kelly","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Geospatial Information Science Program, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, United States Military Academy (USMA), West Point, NY 10996, USA"},{"name":"Geomatics Program, School of Forestry, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"},{"name":"Geospatial Modeling and Applications (GMAP) Lab, School of Forestry, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}]},{"given":"Benjamin","family":"Wilkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geomatics Program, School of Forestry, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"},{"name":"Geospatial Modeling and Applications (GMAP) Lab, School of Forestry, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6182-4017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amr","family":"Abd-Elrahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geomatics Program, School of Forestry, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"},{"name":"Geospatial Modeling and Applications (GMAP) Lab, School of Forestry, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"},{"name":"Gulf Coast Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Wimauma, FL 33598, USA"}]},{"given":"Orlando","family":"Cordero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geomatics Program, School of Forestry, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"},{"name":"Geospatial Modeling and Applications (GMAP) Lab, School of Forestry, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1870-110X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H. Andrew","family":"Lassiter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geospatial Modeling and Applications (GMAP) Lab, School of Forestry, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA"},{"name":"School of Civil and Construction Engineering, Oregon State University, 101 Kearney Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ASPRS (2015). Asprs positional accuracy standards for digital geospatial data. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens., 81, 1\u201326.","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.81.3.A1-A26"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"ISO (2007). Iso\/Iec Guide 99. International Vocabulary of Metrology\u2014Basic and General Concepts and Associated Terms (VIM), International Organization for Standardization. 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Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA40945.2020.9197440"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/17\/4220\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T01:49:17Z","timestamp":1736905757000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/17\/4220"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]]},"references-count":22,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14174220"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14174220","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]]}}}