{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,28]],"date-time":"2024-08-28T05:06:14Z","timestamp":1724821574950},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,8]],"date-time":"2022-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657238400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"The Borre Monitoring Project investigated how environmental factors, in particular, precipitation and soil moisture variation as well as different soil and sediment types, affect the quality of GPR data collected for archaeological purposes. To study these questions, regular GPR surveys were conducted over a period of 14 months across a test area covering a hall building at the Iron and Viking Age site of Borre in Norway. In order to obtain in situ measurements of environmental factors relevant for electromagnetic wave propagation including volumetric water content, bulk electrical conductivity, ground temperature, and precipitation, three monitoring stations were erected at the test site. Soil and sediment samples taken from the profiles at the respective monitoring stations were analysed to gain a basic description of their physical and chemical properties. Twelve GPR surveys were conducted roughly once a month between August 2016 and September 2017 and the results clearly indicated differences in the quality of the data collected. To better understand the underlying causes for this variation, GPR data were compared against and integrated with the in situ measurements gathered using the monitoring stations. The results of this analysis emphasised the benefit of dry conditions, which, if prevailing over a longer period of time, proved to generate GPR data of the highest quality. Seasonality could not be attested; instead, data quality was governed by small-scale weather patterns, where the time and intensity of rainfall events prior to the surveys as well as sudden changes in air temperature played a decisive role. While the results of this study are only valid for sites with similar settings such as Borre, they emphasise the importance of considering the environmental factors during all stages of a GPR survey and highlight the need for further studies investigating other settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14143289","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,11]],"date-time":"2022-07-11T04:06:21Z","timestamp":1657512381000},"page":"3289","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["The Influence of Environmental Factors on the Quality of GPR Data: The Borre Monitoring Project"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Petra","family":"Schneidhofer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Cultural Heritage Management, Vestfold and Telemark County Council, Svend Foyns Gate 9, 3126 T\u00f8nsberg, Norway"}]},{"given":"Christer","family":"Tonning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Cultural Heritage Management, Vestfold and Telemark County Council, Svend Foyns Gate 9, 3126 T\u00f8nsberg, Norway"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7416-8189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebecca J. S.","family":"Cannell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Archaeology, Conservation and History, University of Oslo, Niels Henrik Abels vei 36, 0851 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1573-3544","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erich","family":"Nau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research, Storgata 2, 0155 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"given":"Alois","family":"Hinterleitner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archaeology, Hohe Warte 38, 1190 Wien, Austria"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4825-9604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Geert J.","family":"Verhoeven","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archaeology, Hohe Warte 38, 1190 Wien, Austria"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2442-2921","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lars","family":"Gustavsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research, Storgata 2, 0155 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"ORCID":"http:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1618-3230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Knut","family":"Paasche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research, Storgata 2, 0155 Oslo, Norway"}]},{"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Neubauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archaeology, Hohe Warte 38, 1190 Wien, Austria"}]},{"given":"Terje","family":"Gansum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Cultural Heritage Management, Vestfold and Telemark County Council, Svend Foyns Gate 9, 3126 T\u00f8nsberg, Norway"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Trinks, I. (2007). (University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria). Borre October 2007, Unpublished Report Prepared for Vestfold County Council."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Sala, J. (2008). (3D Radar, Oslo, Norway). Informasjon om Borreparken, Unpublished Report Prepared for Vestfold County Council."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabler, M., Trinks, I., Nau, E., Hinterleitner, A., Paasche, K., Gustavsen, L., Kristiansen, M., Tonning, C., Schneidhofer, P., and Kucera, M. (2019). Archaeological Prospection with Motorised Multichannel Ground-Penetrating Radar Arrays on Snow-Covered Areas in Norway. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11212485"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.15184\/aqy.2019.211","article-title":"Halls at Borre: The discovery of three large buildings at a Late Iron and Viking Age royal burial site in Norway","volume":"94","author":"Tonning","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Boddice, D. (2014). Changing Geophysical Contrast between Archaeological Features and Surrounding Soil. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Birmingham]."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2008.00665.x","article-title":"Sequential Monitoring of Burials Containing Small Pig Cadavers Using Ground Penetrating Radar","volume":"53","author":"Schultz","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s12520-013-0145-4","article-title":"Determination of the influence of soil parameters and sample density on ground-penetrating radar: A case study of a Roman picket in Lower Bavaria","volume":"6","author":"Linck","year":"2013","journal-title":"Archaeol. Anthr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Fry, R. (2014). Time-Lapse Geophysical Investigations over Known Archaeological Features Using Electrical Resistivity Imaging and Earth Resistance. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bradford]."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Jol, H.M. (2008). Electromagnetic principles of ground penetrating radar. Ground Penetrating Radar Theory and Applications, Elsevier Science."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Conyers, L.B. (2013). Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology, Altamira Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Jol, H.M. (2008). Electrical and magnetic properties of rocks, soils and fluids. Ground Penetrating Radar Theory and Applications, Elsevier Science."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Scollar, I., Tabbagh, A., Hesse, A., and Herzog, I. (1990). Archaeological Prospecting and Remote Sensing, Cambridge University Press. Topics in Remote Sensing 2."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2013.10.005","article-title":"Laboratory and field assessment of the capacitance sensors Decagon 10HS and 5TE for estimating the water content of irrigated soils","volume":"132","author":"Visconti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Jol, H.M. (2008). Soils, peatlands, and biomonitoring. Ground Penetrating Radar Theory and Applications, Elsevier Science."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donahue, R.L., Miller, R.W., and Shickluna, J.C. (1977). Soils: An Introduction to Soils and Plant Growth, Prentice-Hall. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1097\/00010694-197804000-00019"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Tan, K.H. (1998). Principles of Soil Chemistry, Marcel Dekker, Inc."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Cates, A. (2022, June 11). The Connection between Soil Organic Matter and Soil Water; Minnesota Crop News; Minnesota University Extension. Available online: https:\/\/blog-crop-news.extension.umn.edu\/2020\/03\/the-connection-between-soil-organic.html."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Nicolaysen, N. (1854). Om Borrefundet i 1852, Foreningen til Norske Fortidsminnesmerkers Bevaring, Foreningen til Norske Fortidsmin-Nesmerkers Bevaring."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"1","article-title":"Borrefundet og Vestfoldkongenes graver; Videnskapsselskapet Skrifter II","volume":"1","year":"1916","journal-title":"Hist. Folisofisk Kl."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Lillevold, E. (1954). Borre i lys av Borre-funnet og Nasjonalparken. Borre Bygdebok, Borre Kommune."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Mikkelsen, E., and Larsen, H.J. (1992). Borre-et Merovingertidssentrum i \u00d8st-Norge. \u00d8konomiske og Politiske Sentra i Norge ca 400\u20131000 e.Kr, Universitetets Oldsaksamlings."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Myhre, B. (2015). F\u00f8r Viken ble Norge, Borregravfeltet Som Religi\u00f8s og Politisk Arena, Norske Oldfunn XXXI, Cicero Grafisk."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Edquist, S., Hermansson, L., and Johansen, S. (2009). Vikingtiden p\u00e5 Borre. Hvordan har fortiden blitt brukt og formidlet?. Tankar om Ursprung, Forntiden och Medeltiden I Nordisk Historie Anv\u00e4nding, The Museum of National An-tiquities."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Sundquist, O., and Vikstrand, P. (2013). Monumentaliseringen av Gamla Uppsala. Gamla Uppsala i ny Belysning, Swedish Science."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Christensen, T. (2016). Lejre Bag Myden, De Ark\u00e6ologiske Udgravninger, Jysk Ark\u00e6ologisk Selskab Skrifter 87, Aarhus Universitet."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Skre, D. (2007). Geology, soils, vegetation and sea-levels in the Kaupang Area. Kaupang in Skiringssal, Aarhus University Press."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2014.04.045","article-title":"The late Nordic Iron Age and Viking Age royal burial site of Borre in Norway: ALS- and GPR-based landscape reconstruction and harbour location at an uplifting coastal area","volume":"367","author":"Draganits","year":"2015","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"FAO (2015). World reference base for soil ressources 2014, Update 2015. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. Food and Agriculture Organization for the United Nations, United Nations."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1029\/WR016i003p00574","article-title":"Electromagnetic determination of soil water content: Measurements in coaxial transmission lines","volume":"16","author":"Topp","year":"1980","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Meter (Meter Group AG, Muenchen, Germany) (2013). GS3-Manual, Unpublished User Manual."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.1589","article-title":"Archaeological prospection of a specialized cooking-pit site at Lunde in Vestfold, Norway","volume":"25","author":"Gustavsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-7969-3_10","article-title":"Recent Advances in Remote Sensing Change Detection\u2014A Review","volume":"18","author":"Hecheltjen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Land Use Land Cover. Mapp. Eur."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1533","article-title":"Change detection in coastal zone environments","volume":"43","author":"Weismiller","year":"1977","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3961","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500222608","article-title":"Visualization and unsupervised classification of changes in multispectral satellite imagery","volume":"27","author":"Canty","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmidt, A., Dabas, M., and Sarris, A. (2020). Dreaming of Perfect Data: Characterizing Noise in Archaeo-Geophysical Measurements. Geosciences, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences10100382"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2021.103456","article-title":"The influence of soil texture and environmental conditions on frozen soil infiltration: A numerical investigation","volume":"194","author":"Stuurop","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urban, T.M., Rasic, J.T., Alix, C., Anderson, D.D., Manning, S.W., Mason, O.K., Tremayne, A.H., and Wolff, C.B. (2016). Frozen: The Potential and Pitfalls of Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology in the Alaskan Arctic. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8121007"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1111\/ejss.12224","article-title":"Estimating soil organic carbon through loss on ignition: Effects of ignition conditions and structural water loss","volume":"66","author":"Hoogsteen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Soil Sci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/14\/3289\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]],"date-time":"2024-08-01T20:12:10Z","timestamp":1722543130000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/14\/3289"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,8]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14143289"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14143289","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,8]]}}}