{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,21]],"date-time":"2025-02-21T16:15:47Z","timestamp":1740154547379,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]],"date-time":"2021-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631577600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1294","416767181"],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"We present the first analysis of water vapour profiles derived from nadir measurements by the infrared imaging Fourier transform spectrometer GLORIA (Gimballed Limb Observer for Radiance Imaging of the Atmosphere). The measurements were performed on 27 September 2017, during the WISE (Wave driven ISentropic Exchange) campaign aboard the HALO aircraft over the North Atlantic in an area between 37\u00b0\u201350\u00b0N and 20\u00b0\u201328\u00b0W. From each nadir recording of the 2-D imaging spectrometer, the spectral radiances of all non-cloudy pixels have been averaged after application of a newly developed cloud filter. From these mid-infrared nadir spectra, vertical profiles of H2O have been retrieved with a vertical resolution corresponding to five degrees of freedom below the aircraft. Uncertainties in radiometric calibration, temperature and spectroscopy have been identified as dominating error sources. Comparing retrievals resulting from two different a priori assumptions (constant exponential vs. ERA 5 reanalysis data) revealed parts of the flight where the observations clearly show inconsistencies with the ERA 5 water vapour fields. Further, a water vapour inversion at around 6 km altitude could be identified in the nadir retrievals and confirmed by a nearby radiosonde ascent. An intercomparison of multiple water vapour profiles from GLORIA in nadir and limb observational modes, IASI (Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer) satellite data from two different retrieval processors, and radiosonde measurements shows a broad consistency between the profiles. The comparison shows how fine vertical structures are represented by nadir sounders as well as the influence of a priori information on the retrievals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13183675","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]],"date-time":"2021-09-15T03:34:11Z","timestamp":1631676851000},"page":"3675","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Retrieval of Water Vapour Profiles from GLORIA Nadir Observations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Nils","family":"K\u00f6nig","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Postfach 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6671-0297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerald","family":"Wetzel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Postfach 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4174-9531","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"H\u00f6pfner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Postfach 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2016-2800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felix","family":"Friedl-Vallon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Postfach 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9642-1955","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00f6ren","family":"Johansson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Postfach 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3294-0278","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anne","family":"Kleinert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Postfach 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8452-0035","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matthias","family":"Schneider","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Postfach 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1431-2243","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamin","family":"Ertl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Postfach 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany"},{"name":"Steinbuch Centre for Computing, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9095-8332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J\u00f6rn","family":"Ungermann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Energy and Climate Research, Stratosphere, Forschungszentrum J\u00fclich, 52425 J\u00fclich, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2356","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.40.002356","article-title":"Tropospheric emission spectrometer for the Earth Observing System\u2019s Aura satellite","volume":"40","author":"Beer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-5-397-2012","article-title":"Profiles of CH4, HDO, H2O, and N2O with improved lower tropospheric vertical resolution from Aura TES radiances","volume":"5","author":"Worden","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1117\/12.159325","article-title":"Atmospheric infrared sounder on the Earth Observing System","volume":"33","author":"Aumann","year":"1994","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.808324","article-title":"Prelaunch and in-flight radiometric calibration of the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS)","volume":"41","author":"Pagano","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Divakarla, M.G., Barnet, C.D., Goldberg, M.D., McMillin, L.M., Maddy, E., Wolf, W., Zhou, L., and Liu, X. (2006). Validation of Atmospheric Infrared Sounder temperature and water vapor retrievals with matched radiosonde measurements and forecasts. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 111.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JD006116"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12734","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020344","article-title":"Suomi NPP CrIS measurements, sensor data record algorithm, calibration and validation activities, and record data quality","volume":"118","author":"Han","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0094-5765(97)00098-2","article-title":"Infrared atmospheric sounding interferometer","volume":"40","author":"Singer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6453","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-9-6453-2009","article-title":"IASI temperature and water vapor retrievals\u2014Error assessment and validation","volume":"9","author":"Pougatchev","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2012.02.028","article-title":"IASI on Metop-A: Operational Level 2 retrievals after five years in orbit","volume":"113","author":"August","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Design and description of the MUSICA IASI full retrieval product","volume":"2021","author":"Schneider","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01349804","article-title":"High-altitude aircraft measurements of upwelling IR radiance: Prelude to FTIR from geosynchronous satellite","volume":"95","author":"Revercomb","year":"1988","journal-title":"Mikrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS3384.1","article-title":"The NPOESS Airborne Sounding Testbed Interferometer\u2014Remotely Sensed Surface and Atmospheric Conditions during CLAMS","volume":"62","author":"Smith","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1912","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1999)016<1912:TDOAAI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Development of an Airborne Infrared Interferometer for Meteorological Sounding Studies","volume":"16","author":"Wilson","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maestri, T., Rizzi, R., and Smith, J.A. (2005). Spectral infrared analysis of a cirrus cloud based on Airborne Research Interferometer Evaluation System (ARIES) measurements. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 110.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JD005098"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-7-1133-2014","article-title":"Atmospheric composition and thermodynamic retrievals from the ARIES airborne FTS system\u2014Part 1: Technical aspects and simulated capability","volume":"7","author":"Illingworth","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4401","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-7-4401-2014","article-title":"Atmospheric composition and thermodynamic retrievals from the ARIES airborne TIR-FTS system\u2014Part 2: Validation and results from aircraft campaigns","volume":"7","author":"Allen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3565","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-7-3565-2014","article-title":"Instrument concept of the imaging Fourier transform spectrometer GLORIA","volume":"7","author":"Gulde","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1915","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-7-1915-2014","article-title":"Gimballed Limb Observer for Radiance Imaging of the Atmosphere (GLORIA) scientific objectives","volume":"7","author":"Riese","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-019-0385-8","article-title":"Ammonium nitrate particles formed in upper troposphere from ground ammonia sources during Asian monsoons","volume":"12","author":"Ungermann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14695","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-20-14695-2020","article-title":"Pollution trace gas distributions and their transport in the Asian monsoon upper troposphere and lowermost stratosphere during the StratoClim campaign 2017","volume":"20","author":"Johansson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15643","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-18-15643-2018","article-title":"Mesoscale fine structure of a tropopause fold over mountains","volume":"18","author":"Woiwode","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4737","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-4737-2018","article-title":"Airborne limb-imaging measurements of temperature, HNO3, O3, ClONO2, H2O and CFC-12 during the Arctic winter 2015\/2016: Characterization, in situ validation and comparison to Aura\/MLS","volume":"11","author":"Johansson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8213","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-21-8213-2021","article-title":"Pollution trace gases C2H6, C2H2, HCOOH, and PAN in the North Atlantic UTLS: Observations and simulations","volume":"21","author":"Wetzel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-8-1773-2015","article-title":"The mechanical and thermal setup of the GLORIA spectrometer","volume":"8","author":"Piesch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4167","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-7-4167-2014","article-title":"Level 0 to 1 processing of the imaging Fourier transform spectrometer GLORIA: Generation of radiometrically and spectrally calibrated spectra","volume":"7","author":"Kleinert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ungermann, J., Kleinert, A., Maucher, G., Bartolom\u00e9, I., Krasauskas, L., Neubert, T., Friedl-Vallon, F., and Johansson, S. (2021). On Quantifying and Mitigation GLORIA Instrument Effects and Uncertainties, In Preparation.","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-15-2503-2022"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"119-1","article-title":"Evidence of scattering of tropospheric radiation by PSCs in mid-IR limb emission spectra: MIPAS-B observations and KOPRA simulations","volume":"29","author":"Oelhaf","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-4073(01)00123-6","article-title":"Sensitivity of trace gas abundances retrievals from infrared limb emission spectra to simplifying approximations in radiative transfer modelling","volume":"72","author":"Stiller","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodgers, C.D. (2000). Inverse Methods for Atmospheric Sounding: Theory and Practice, World Scientific.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789812813718"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"501","article-title":"On the solution of ill-posed problems and the method of regularization","volume":"151","author":"Tikhonov","year":"1963","journal-title":"Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 global reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11207","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-11-11207-2011","article-title":"Optimal estimation of tropospheric H2O and \u03b4D with IASI\/METOP","volume":"11","author":"Schneider","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4981","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-4981-2018","article-title":"Evaluation of MUSICA IASI tropospheric water vapour profiles using theoretical error assessments and comparisons to GRUAN Vaisala RS92 measurements","volume":"11","author":"Borger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(88)90032-6","article-title":"Emissivity of pure and sea waters for the model sea surface in the infrared window regions","volume":"24","author":"Masuda","year":"1988","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3871","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-3871-2018","article-title":"Characterization of blackbody inhomogeneity and its effect on the retrieval results of the GLORIA instrument","volume":"11","author":"Kleinert","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-2-159-2009","article-title":"Retrieval of temperature, H2O, O3, HNO3, CH4, N2O, ClONO2 and ClO from MIPAS reduced resolution nominal mode limb emission measurements","volume":"2","author":"Kellmann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"EUMETSAT (2021, September 13). IASI Level 2: Product Guide. Technical Report, EUM\/OPS-EPS\/MAN\/04\/0033. Available online: https:\/\/www.eumetsat.int\/media\/45982."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.34.000467","article-title":"Remote sensing of trace gases in the midinfrared spectral region from a nadir view","volume":"34","author":"Wetzel","year":"1995","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/18\/3675\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,18]],"date-time":"2024-07-18T18:00:57Z","timestamp":1721325657000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/18\/3675"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13183675"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13183675","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]]}}}