{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,8]],"date-time":"2024-07-08T07:17:42Z","timestamp":1720423062776},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]],"date-time":"2021-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614211200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Robot. AI"],"abstract":"Researchers continue to devise creative ways to explore the extent to which people perceive robots as social agents, as opposed to objects. One such approach involves asking participants to inflict \u2018harm\u2019 on a robot. Researchers are interested in the length of time between the experimenter issuing the instruction and the participant complying, and propose that relatively long periods of hesitation might reflect empathy for the robot, and perhaps even attribution of human-like qualities, such as agency and sentience. In a recent experiment, we adapted the so-called \u2018hesitance to hit\u2019 paradigm, in which participants were instructed to hit a humanoid robot on the head with a mallet. After standing up to do so (signaling intent to hit the robot), participants were stopped, and then took part in a semi-structured interview to probe their thoughts and feelings during the period of hesitation. Thematic analysis of the responses indicate that hesitation not only reflects perceived socialness, but also other factors including (but not limited to) concerns about cost, mallet disbelief, processing of the task instruction, and the influence of authority. The open-ended, free responses participants provided also offer rich insights into individual differences with regards to anthropomorphism, perceived power imbalances, and feelings of connection toward the robot. In addition to aiding understanding of this<\/jats:italic> measurement technique and related topics regarding socialness attribution to robots, we argue that greater use of open questions can lead to exciting new research questions and interdisciplinary collaborations in the domain of social robotics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2021.603510","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]],"date-time":"2021-02-25T08:44:59Z","timestamp":1614242699000},"update-policy":"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["\u201cHit the Robot on the Head With This Mallet\u201d \u2013 Making a Case for Including More Open Questions in HRI Research"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Katie A.","family":"Riddoch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Emily. S.","family":"Cross","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.63.4.596","article-title":"Inclusion of other in the self scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness","volume":"63","author":"Aron","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Person. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327663jcp0102_04","article-title":"The role and measurement of attachment in consumer behavior","volume":"1","author":"Ball","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Consum. Psychol."},{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1075\/is.9.3.04bar","article-title":"Exploring the abuse of robots","volume":"9","author":"Bartneck","year":"2008","journal-title":"Interact. Stud."},{"key":"B2","first-page":"54","article-title":"\u201cRobot abuse-a limitation of the media equation,\u201d in Proceedings of the interact 2005 workshop on robot abuse, Rome, Italy","author":"Bartneck","year":"2005"},{"key":"B3","first-page":"217","article-title":"Daisy, daisy, give me your answer do!\u201d switching off a robot","author":"Bartneck","year":"2007"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0169185","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169185","article-title":"The development and validation of the empathy components questionnaire (ECQ)","volume":"12","author":"Batchelder","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732319889354","article-title":"\u201cEverything is perfect, and we have no problems\u201d: detecting and limiting social desirability bias in qualitative research","volume":"30","author":"Bergen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Qual. Health Res."},{"key":"B5","volume-title":"Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches","author":"Bernard","year":"2013"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-019-00562-7","article-title":"The (fe) male robot: how robot body shape impacts first impressions and trust towards robots","author":"Bernotat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Internat. J. Soc. Rob."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1559-1816.1999.tb00134.x","article-title":"The milgram paradigm after 35 years: some things we now know about obedience to authority1","volume":"29","author":"Blass","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Appl. Soc. Pyschol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315248813","volume-title":"Mixing methods: qualitative and quantitative research","author":"Brannen","year":"2017"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa","article-title":"Using thematic analysis in psychology","volume":"3","author":"Braun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qual. Res. Psychol."},{"key":"B10","unstructured":"Code of human research ethics2014"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010416-043958","article-title":"Interactions with robots: the truths we reveal about ourselves","volume":"68","author":"Broadbent","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s10551-011-1151-z","article-title":"Ethical consumers among the millennials: a cross-national study","volume":"110","author":"Bucic","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Bus. Ethics."},{"key":"B61","first-page":"254","author":"Carpinella","year":"2017"},{"key":"B13","first-page":"1252","article-title":"Measuring individual differences in anthropomorphism toward machines and animals","author":"Chin","year":"2004"},{"key":"B14","article-title":"The pros and cons of open and closed questions","author":"Copeland","year":"2017"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1408988111","author":"Craenen","year":"2018"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17320","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1408988111","article-title":"Harm to others outweighs harm to self in moral decision making","volume":"111","author":"Crockett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20180034","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2018.0034","article-title":"A neurocognitive investigation of the impact of socializing with a robot on empathy for pain","volume":"374","author":"Cross","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phil. Transact. Royal Soc. B"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12629","DOI":"10.2196\/12629","article-title":"Anthropomorphism of robots: study of appearance and agency","volume":"6","author":"Crowell","year":"2019","journal-title":"JMIR Hum. Fact."},{"key":"B18","first-page":"770","article-title":"Empathic concern and the effect of stories in human-robot interaction","author":"Darling","year":"2015"},{"key":"B19","article-title":"Who\u2019s johnny?\u2019 anthropomorphic framing in human-robot interaction, integration, and policy","volume-title":"Robot ethics 2.0","author":"Darling","year":"2015"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2014.10.035","article-title":"Individual differences in guilt proneness affect how people respond to moral tradeoffs between harm avoidance and obedience to authority","volume":"74","author":"Ent","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pers. Indiv. Differ."},{"key":"B21","first-page":"235","article-title":"Autonomy, embodiment, and obedience to robots","author":"Geiskkovitch","year":"2015"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.5898\/JHRI.5.1.Geiskkovitch","article-title":"Please continue, we need more data: an exploration of obedience to robots","volume":"5","author":"Geiskkovitch","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hum.-Robot Interact."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428116639133","article-title":"Elaboration, generalization, triangulation, and interpretation","volume":"20","author":"Gibson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Organ. Res. Methods"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797617737128","article-title":"The role of experimenter belief in social priming","volume":"29","author":"Gilder","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"B25","first-page":"87","article-title":"Handbook of individual differences in cognition","volume-title":"Attention, memory and executive control","author":"Gruszka","year":"2010"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2020.03.013","article-title":"Social cognition in the age of human-robot interaction","volume":"43","author":"Henschel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13727","article-title":"From automata to animate beings: the scope and limits of attributing socialness to artificial agents","volume":"1426","author":"Hortensius","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1109\/tcds.2018.2826921","article-title":"The perception of emotion in artificial agents","volume":"10","author":"Hortensius","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Cogn. Dev. Syst."},{"key":"B29","unstructured":"Adding files to an NVivo project [Video]. YouTube"},{"key":"B30","unstructured":"Getting started with coding [Video]. YouTube"},{"key":"B31","unstructured":"Getting started with your first project [Video]. YouTube"},{"key":"B32","first-page":"13","article-title":"Social psychology and human-robot interaction: an uneasy marriage","author":"Irfan","year":"2018"},{"key":"B33","volume-title":"Write a questionnaire: little quick fix","author":"Kara","year":"2018"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1080\/10496491.2017.1380111","article-title":"Evolution of corporate social responsibility: a content analysis of United States magazine advertising, 1980\u20132009","volume":"24","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Promot. Manag."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.3758\/bf03196751","article-title":"Modeling individual differences in cognition","volume":"12","author":"Lee","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"B60","article-title":"Coding qualitative data: a synthesis guiding the novice","author":"Linneberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Qual. Res. J."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.00450","article-title":"Do we adopt the intentional stance toward humanoid robots?","volume":"10","author":"Marchesi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"B37","volume-title":"Using interviews in a research project","author":"Mathers","year":"1998"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1080\/14639220903106395","article-title":"Sustained performance under overload: personality and individual differences in stress and coping","volume":"10","author":"Matthews","year":"2009","journal-title":"Theor. Issues Ergon. Sci."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1316","DOI":"10.3390\/app7121316","article-title":"Bibliometric analysis of social robotics research: identifying research trends and knowledgebase","volume":"7","author":"Mejia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Sci."},{"key":"B70","article-title":"The imitative mind: development, evolution and brain bases. Cambridge University Press, Vol. 6.","author":"Meltzoff","year":"2002"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-7687.2007.00574.x","article-title":"Like me: a foundation for social cognition","volume":"10","author":"Meltzoff","year":"2007","journal-title":"Develop. Sci."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1037\/h0040525","article-title":"Behavioral study of obedience","volume":"67","author":"Milgram","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Abnor. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.2752\/146069205789331637","article-title":"Design strategies to postpone consumers\u2019 product replacement: the value of a strong person-product relationship","volume":"8","author":"Mugge","year":"2005","journal-title":"Des. J."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"0021","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-016-0021","article-title":"A manifesto for reproducible science","volume":"1","author":"Munaf\u00f2","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Human Behav."},{"key":"B42","first-page":"201","article-title":"Can you hold my hand? Physical warmth in human-robot interaction","author":"Nie","year":"2012"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2007.914004","article-title":"Prediction of human behavior in human--robot interaction using psychological scales for anxiety and negative attitudes toward robots","volume":"24","author":"Nomura","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1609406917733847","DOI":"10.1177\/1609406917733847","article-title":"Thematic analysis: striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria","volume":"16","author":"Nowell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Qual. Methods."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.04.040","article-title":"Individual differences in cognition, affect, and performance: behavioral, neuroimaging, and molecular genetic approaches","volume":"59","author":"Parasuraman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780190652951.001.0001","volume-title":"Robot ethics 2.0: from autonomous cars to artificial intelligence","author":"Lin","year":"2017"},{"key":"B46","article-title":"Introducing industrial design students to long-term product attachment","author":"Ramirez","year":"2010"},{"key":"B47","first-page":"21","article-title":"Wizard of awwws: exploring psychological impact on the researchers in social HRI experiments","author":"Rea","year":"2017"},{"key":"B48","volume-title":"The media equation: how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places","author":"Reeves","year":"1996"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/eyjv7","article-title":"Investigating the effect of heartrate synchrony on prosocial behaviour towards a robot","author":"Riddoch","year":"2020"},{"key":"B69","article-title":"\u201cExposure to cinematic depictions of robots and attitudes towards them,\u201d in Proceedings of international conference on human-robot interaction, workshop on expectations and intuitive human-robot interaction.","author":"Riek","year":"2011"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-013-0196-9","article-title":"To Err is human(-like): effects of robot gesture on perceived anthropomorphism and likability","volume":"5","author":"Salem","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Robo."},{"key":"B50","first-page":"219","article-title":"Multidisciplinary computer science through conducting robots","author":"Salgian","year":"2011"},{"key":"B51","article-title":"Consumer-product attachment: measurement and design implications","volume":"2","author":"Schifferstein","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Des."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-010-9234-6","article-title":"Granny and the robots: ethical issues in robot care for the elderly","volume":"14","author":"Sharkey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ethics Inf. Technol."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1002\/nop2.275","article-title":"Qualitative thematic analysis based on descriptive phenomenology","volume":"6","author":"Sundler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nurs Open."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691610369336","article-title":"Who sees human? The stability and importance of individual differences in anthropomorphism","volume":"5","author":"Waytz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.01663","article-title":"Robots as intentional agents: using neuroscientific methods to make robots appear more social","volume":"8","author":"Wiese","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-015-0299-6","article-title":"Humans are well tuned to detecting agents among non-agents: examining the sensitivity of human perception to behavioral characteristics of intentional systems","volume":"7","author":"Wykowska","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Robo."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Robotics and AI"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frobt.2021.603510\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]],"date-time":"2021-02-25T08:46:08Z","timestamp":1614242768000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frobt.2021.603510\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]]},"references-count":68,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frobt.2021.603510"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frobt.2021.603510","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-9144"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-9144","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,25]]}}}